Illegal immigration in New York City
Encyclopedia
An illegal immigrant refers to a foreign individual who either entered the country without official authorization from the United States Government or who entered the country with official authorization but then overstayed his or her temporary visa . One of the most popular destinations for illegal immigrants in the United States is New York City
.
Illegal immigrants in New York City come from a wide array of countries from all over the globe. According to an estimate by Jeffrey S. Passel of the Pew Hispanic Center, 27 percent of illegal immigrants in New York City come from Mexico
and Central America
, 23 percent come from South Asia
and East Asia
, 22 percent come from the Caribbean
, 13 percent come from South America
, eight percent come from Europe
, five percent come from Africa
, and only two percent come from the Middle East
.
and job market. As New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg
exclaimed, “Although [illegal immigrants] broke the law by illegally crossing our borders or over-staying their visas and our businesses broke the law by employing them, our city’s economy would be a shell of itself had they not, and it would collapse if they were deported” [7] [10]. According to a Fiscal Policy Institute analysis of 2000 to 2006 data, there are 374,000 illegal immigrant workers in New York City, which makes up 10 percent of the resident workforce .. With 374,000 out of 535,000 illegal immigrants working in New York City, illegal immigrants have a labor force participation rate of roughly 70 percent. This percentage is higher than the labor force participation rate for native-born residents, 60 percent, or for overall foreign-born residents, 64 percent, in New York City .
Illegal immigrants can be found working in almost every industry in New York City performing a wide variety of tasks. More than half of all dishwasher
s in the city are illegal immigrants, as are a third of all sewing machine
operators, painter
s, cook
s, construction
laborers, and food preparation workers. Illegal immigrants also make up close to 30 percent of the city’s automotive service technicians & mechanic
s, waiter
s & waitresses, maid
s & housekeeping
cleaner
s, and carpenters. The five occupations with the most illegal immigrant workers in New York City are cooks (21,000), janitor
s & building cleaners (19,000), construction laborers (17,000), maids & housekeeping cleaners (16,000), and waiters & waitresses (15,000).
Occupation
Source: Fiscal Policy Institute, 2007 .
chef
and restaurateur
explained, “We always, always hire the undocumented workers…It’s not just me, it’s everybody in the industry. First, they are willing to do the work. Second, they are willing to learn. Third, they are not paid as well. It’s an economic decision. It’s less expensive to hire an undocumented person” .
data, Mexican immigrants have the highest rate of employment among the city’s 10 largest immigrant groups, and they are more likely to hold jobs than New York City’s native-born population. Based on the 2008 census data, about 75 percent of all Mexicans in the city between ages 16 and 65 are in the civilian labor force
and only around four percent of them are unemployed, which is well above the nation’s current unemployment rate of 9.6% . Experts say the main reason so many of these immigrants are employed is because they are illegal, and, consequentially, they are less likely to report workplace abuses to the authorities for fear of deportation
. As a result, many of these workers hold jobs that pay less than the minimum wage
and require them to work 100-hour work weeks .
claimed, "The reality is that [illegal immigrants] are here, and they're going to remain here. The choice becomes for a city what do you do? Allow them to stay on the streets or allow them to be educated? The preferred choice from the point of view of New York City is to be educated" .
New York City’s educational policy
toward illegal immigrants has enabled hundreds of thousands of such students to receive education through the state’s public school systems. An estimated 345,000, or 11.7 percent, of the K-12 public school students in New York are children of illegal immigrants. Illegal immigrants also play a large role in the college system in New York City mainly due to the fact that the state allows illegal immigrant students who grew up in the state to attend public colleges at in-state tuition rates . According to the Chronicle of Higher Education, the State University of New York
system does not keep track of whether a foreign student is in the country legally or illegally. Consequentially, the City University of New York
hosts about 2,000 illegal immigrant students .
These illegal immigrant students, however, cost the city’s legal residents billions of dollars according to the Federation for American Immigration Reform
(FAIR), an organization that favors tougher immigration enforcement. According to FAIR, Illegal immigrants in K-12 public schools cost New York taxpayers $1.5 billion per year. Furthermore, the U.S. citizen children of illegal immigrants cost the taxpayers an additional $2.8 billion per year. When these two numbers are combined, the total cost of educating illegal immigrants and children of illegal immigrants in K-12 public schools is more than $4.3 billion annually for the state’s taxpayers. Furthermore, the state’s admission of illegal immigrants into the state’s public universities and community college
s at taxpayer subsidized in-state tuition rates costs the city and state’s taxpayers an additional $29–38 million per year .
[7]. In 1994, the Urban Institute
estimated the illegal immigrant prisoner population to be 2,158 persons. As of 2005, the number of deportable immigrant prisoner-years in New York facilities was about 6,500. In New York City alone, the number of deportable immigrant prisoner-years was 1,656 . These prisoners have large costs for New York City’s legal residents. The total salary-related incarceration
costs are about $208 million per year, and the uncompensated cost of incarcerating deportable illegal immigrants in New York’s state and local prisons amounts to about $165 million a year.
, which favors tougher immigration enforcement, almost half the households headed by an illegal immigrant are receiving welfare
, food assistance and health benefits for their children [8].
In total, the illegal immigrant population residing in New York costs the state’s taxpayers more than $5 billion per year for education, medical care and incarceration costs according to the Federation for American Immigration Reform . On a per person basis, the annual tax burden amounts to about $874 per New York household headed by a native-born resident [6]. Even if the estimated $730 million in sales, income and property taxes collected from illegal immigrants are subtracted from the fiscal outlays, net costs still amount to more than $4.5 billion per year for the city and state’s taxpayers .
.
Currently, New York City has a sanctuary policy that accommodates illegal immigrants by prohibiting its police from asking about immigration status . As Mayor Bloomberg explained, “Our general policy in this area protects the confidentiality of law-abiding immigrants, regardless of their status, when they report a crime or visit a hospital or send their children to school” [7].
On September 17, 2003, Mayor Bloomberg issued Executive Order 41 to protect the privacy of illegal immigrants and to grant them access to City services that they need and are entitled to receive. According to Executive Order 41, if an illegal immigrant goes to a City agency to request certain services or benefits, City employees will not ask about his immigration status unless it is required by law or necessary to determine whether he is eligible to receive those services or benefits. Furthermore, if an illegal immigrant is the victim or witness of a crime, or if he calls or approaches the police seeking assistance, police officer
s will not inquire about his immigration status [9].
Krase, Jerome, and Ray Hutchison. Race and Ethnicity in New York City. Vol. 7. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Ltd, 2004.
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
.
Profile and Demographics
According to a study by the Fiscal Policy Institute, a little more than four million immigrants live in New York State and three million live in New York City. According to a 2005 estimate, there are 645,000 illegal immigrants in the state of New York , and there are 535,000 illegal immigrants in New York City alone . In all, illegal immigrants make up 18 percent of all immigrants living in New York City .Illegal immigrants in New York City come from a wide array of countries from all over the globe. According to an estimate by Jeffrey S. Passel of the Pew Hispanic Center, 27 percent of illegal immigrants in New York City come from Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
and Central America
Central America
Central America is the central geographic region of the Americas. It is the southernmost, isthmian portion of the North American continent, which connects with South America on the southeast. When considered part of the unified continental model, it is considered a subcontinent...
, 23 percent come from South Asia
South Asia
South Asia, also known as Southern Asia, is the southern region of the Asian continent, which comprises the sub-Himalayan countries and, for some authorities , also includes the adjoining countries to the west and the east...
and East Asia
East Asia
East Asia or Eastern Asia is a subregion of Asia that can be defined in either geographical or cultural terms...
, 22 percent come from the Caribbean
Caribbean
The Caribbean is a crescent-shaped group of islands more than 2,000 miles long separating the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, to the west and south, from the Atlantic Ocean, to the east and north...
, 13 percent come from South America
South America
South America is a continent situated in the Western Hemisphere, mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere. The continent is also considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered on the west by the Pacific Ocean and on the north and east...
, eight percent come from Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, five percent come from Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
, and only two percent come from the Middle East
Middle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
.
Participation in Labor Force
Although illegal immigrants do not have legal permanent status in New York City, they play a vital role in the city’s economyEconomy
An economy consists of the economic system of a country or other area; the labor, capital and land resources; and the manufacturing, trade, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area...
and job market. As New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg
Michael Bloomberg
Michael Rubens Bloomberg is the current Mayor of New York City. With a net worth of $19.5 billion in 2011, he is also the 12th-richest person in the United States...
exclaimed, “Although [illegal immigrants] broke the law by illegally crossing our borders or over-staying their visas and our businesses broke the law by employing them, our city’s economy would be a shell of itself had they not, and it would collapse if they were deported” [7] [10]. According to a Fiscal Policy Institute analysis of 2000 to 2006 data, there are 374,000 illegal immigrant workers in New York City, which makes up 10 percent of the resident workforce .. With 374,000 out of 535,000 illegal immigrants working in New York City, illegal immigrants have a labor force participation rate of roughly 70 percent. This percentage is higher than the labor force participation rate for native-born residents, 60 percent, or for overall foreign-born residents, 64 percent, in New York City .
Illegal immigrants can be found working in almost every industry in New York City performing a wide variety of tasks. More than half of all dishwasher
Dishwasher
A dishwasher is a mechanical device for cleaning dishes and eating utensils. Dishwashers can be found in restaurants and private homes.Unlike manual dishwashing, which relies largely on physical scrubbing to remove soiling, the mechanical dishwasher cleans by spraying hot water, typically between ...
s in the city are illegal immigrants, as are a third of all sewing machine
Sewing machine
A sewing machine is a textile machine used to stitch fabric, cards and other material together with thread. Sewing machines were invented during the first Industrial Revolution to decrease the amount of manual sewing work performed in clothing companies...
operators, painter
Painting
Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a surface . The application of the medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush but other objects can be used. In art, the term painting describes both the act and the result of the action. However, painting is...
s, cook
Cook (profession)
A cook is a person who prepares food for consumption. In Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Canada this profession requires government approval ....
s, construction
Construction
In the fields of architecture and civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the building or assembling of infrastructure. Far from being a single activity, large scale construction is a feat of human multitasking...
laborers, and food preparation workers. Illegal immigrants also make up close to 30 percent of the city’s automotive service technicians & mechanic
Mechanic
A mechanic is a craftsman or technician who uses tools to build or repair machinery.Many mechanics are specialized in a particular field such as auto mechanics, bicycle mechanics, motorcycle mechanics, boiler mechanics, general mechanics, industrial maintenance mechanics , air conditioning and...
s, waiter
Waiter
Waiting staff, wait staff, or waitstaff are those who work at a restaurant or a bar attending customers — supplying them with food and drink as requested. Traditionally, a male waiting tables is called a "waiter" and a female a "waitress" with the gender-neutral version being a "server"...
s & waitresses, maid
Maid
A maidservant or in current usage housemaid or maid is a female employed in domestic service.-Description:Once part of an elaborate hierarchy in great houses, today a single maid may be the only domestic worker that upper and even middle-income households can afford, as was historically the case...
s & housekeeping
Housekeeping
Housekeeping is the act of cleaning the rooms and furnishings of a home. It is one of the many chores included in the term housework. Housecleaning includes activities such as disposing of rubbish, cleaning dirty surfaces, dusting and vacuuming. It may also involve some outdoor chores, such as...
cleaner
Cleaner
Cleaner is the name of a German project specializing in electronic music. Formerly known as Cleen, Myer released several albums on the American industrial music record label, Metropolis Records, as well as the labels Zoth Ommog and Accession Records....
s, and carpenters. The five occupations with the most illegal immigrant workers in New York City are cooks (21,000), janitor
Janitor
A janitor or custodian is a professional who takes care of buildings, such as hospitals and schools. Janitors are responsible primarily for cleaning, and often some maintenance and security...
s & building cleaners (19,000), construction laborers (17,000), maids & housekeeping cleaners (16,000), and waiters & waitresses (15,000).
Occupations of Illegal Immigrant Workers in New York City
Occupation
| Occupation | Estimated number of illegal immigrant workers | Illegal immigrant workers as a portion of all workers |
|---|---|---|
| Dishwashers | 11,000 | 54% |
| Sewing machine operators | 12,000 | 35% |
| Painters, construction & maintenance | 7,000 | 33% |
| Cooks | 21,000 | 33% |
| Construction laborers | 17,000 | 32% |
| Food preparation workers | 6,000 | 32% |
| Waitress & waitresses | 15,000 | 28% |
| Maids & housekeeping cleaners | 16,000 | 28% |
| Automotive service technicians & mechanics | 5,000 | 26% |
| Carpenters | 9,000 | 26% |
| Taxi drivers & chauffeurs | 11,000 | 20% |
| Stock clerks & order fillers | 7,000 | 19% |
| Janitors & building cleaners | 19,000 | 19% |
| Laborers & freight, stock & material movers | 6,000 | 16% |
| Driver/sales workers & truck drivers | 9,000 | 15% |
| Cashiers | 10,000 | 12% |
| Retail salespersons | 10,000 | 12% |
| Child care workers | 7,000 | 12% |
| Office clerks, general | 5,000 | 12% |
| First-line supervisors of retail sales workers | 8,000 | 10% |
| Other occupations | 163,000 | 6% |
| Total Undocumented labor force | 374,000 | 10% |
Source: Fiscal Policy Institute, 2007 .
Restaurant Industry
Perhaps illegal immigrants’ greatest contribution to the New York City economy comes in the restaurant industry. Currently, 36 percent of restaurant workers overall are illegal immigrants . According to a 2008 estimate from the Pew Hispanic Center, about 20 percent of the nearly 2.6 million chefs, head cooks and cooks in the United States are illegal immigrants . According to a 2005 report by the Restaurant Opportunities Center of New York and the New York City Restaurant Industry Coalition, illegal immigrant workers in the restaurant industry in New York City receive substantially lower wages than legal workers. According to the report, the median wage of all restaurant workers in the city was $8.00 an hour. However, when illegal immigrant workers’ earnings were taken out of the sample, the median wage rose to $9.00 an hour [13]. As a ManhattanManhattan
Manhattan is the oldest and the most densely populated of the five boroughs of New York City. Located primarily on the island of Manhattan at the mouth of the Hudson River, the boundaries of the borough are identical to those of New York County, an original county of the state of New York...
chef
Chef
A chef is a person who cooks professionally for other people. Although over time the term has come to describe any person who cooks for a living, traditionally it refers to a highly skilled professional who is proficient in all aspects of food preparation.-Etymology:The word "chef" is borrowed ...
and restaurateur
Restaurateur
A restaurateur is a person who opens and runs restaurants professionally. Although over time the term has come to describe any person who owns a restaurant, traditionally it refers to a highly skilled professional who is proficient in all aspects of the restaurant business.-Etymology:The word...
explained, “We always, always hire the undocumented workers…It’s not just me, it’s everybody in the industry. First, they are willing to do the work. Second, they are willing to learn. Third, they are not paid as well. It’s an economic decision. It’s less expensive to hire an undocumented person” .
Mexican Immigrants in Labor Force
According to an analysis of the most recently available censusCensus
A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population. The term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common...
data, Mexican immigrants have the highest rate of employment among the city’s 10 largest immigrant groups, and they are more likely to hold jobs than New York City’s native-born population. Based on the 2008 census data, about 75 percent of all Mexicans in the city between ages 16 and 65 are in the civilian labor force
Labor force
In economics, a labor force or labour force is a region's combined civilian workforce, including both the employed and unemployed.Normally, the labor force of a country consists of everyone of working age In economics, a labor force or labour force is a region's combined civilian workforce,...
and only around four percent of them are unemployed, which is well above the nation’s current unemployment rate of 9.6% . Experts say the main reason so many of these immigrants are employed is because they are illegal, and, consequentially, they are less likely to report workplace abuses to the authorities for fear of deportation
Deportation
Deportation means the expulsion of a person or group of people from a place or country. Today it often refers to the expulsion of foreign nationals whereas the expulsion of nationals is called banishment, exile, or penal transportation...
. As a result, many of these workers hold jobs that pay less than the minimum wage
Minimum wage
A minimum wage is the lowest hourly, daily or monthly remuneration that employers may legally pay to workers. Equivalently, it is the lowest wage at which workers may sell their labour. Although minimum wage laws are in effect in a great many jurisdictions, there are differences of opinion about...
and require them to work 100-hour work weeks .
Education
As former New York City mayor Rudy GiulianiRudy Giuliani
Rudolph William Louis "Rudy" Giuliani KBE is an American lawyer, businessman, and politician from New York. He served as Mayor of New York City from 1994 to 2001....
claimed, "The reality is that [illegal immigrants] are here, and they're going to remain here. The choice becomes for a city what do you do? Allow them to stay on the streets or allow them to be educated? The preferred choice from the point of view of New York City is to be educated" .
New York City’s educational policy
Educational Policy
Educational Policy is a peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes papers in the field of Education. The journal's editor is Ana M. Martinez Aleman . It has been in publication since 1987 and is currently published by SAGE Publications....
toward illegal immigrants has enabled hundreds of thousands of such students to receive education through the state’s public school systems. An estimated 345,000, or 11.7 percent, of the K-12 public school students in New York are children of illegal immigrants. Illegal immigrants also play a large role in the college system in New York City mainly due to the fact that the state allows illegal immigrant students who grew up in the state to attend public colleges at in-state tuition rates . According to the Chronicle of Higher Education, the State University of New York
State University of New York
The State University of New York, abbreviated SUNY , is a system of public institutions of higher education in New York, United States. It is the largest comprehensive system of universities, colleges, and community colleges in the United States, with a total enrollment of 465,000 students, plus...
system does not keep track of whether a foreign student is in the country legally or illegally. Consequentially, the City University of New York
City University of New York
The City University of New York is the public university system of New York City, with its administrative offices in Yorkville in Manhattan. It is the largest urban university in the United States, consisting of 23 institutions: 11 senior colleges, six community colleges, the William E...
hosts about 2,000 illegal immigrant students .
These illegal immigrant students, however, cost the city’s legal residents billions of dollars according to the Federation for American Immigration Reform
Federation for American Immigration Reform
The Federation for American Immigration Reform is a non-profit tax exempt educational organization in the United States that advocates changes in U.S. immigration policy that would result in significant reductions in immigration, both legal and illegal...
(FAIR), an organization that favors tougher immigration enforcement. According to FAIR, Illegal immigrants in K-12 public schools cost New York taxpayers $1.5 billion per year. Furthermore, the U.S. citizen children of illegal immigrants cost the taxpayers an additional $2.8 billion per year. When these two numbers are combined, the total cost of educating illegal immigrants and children of illegal immigrants in K-12 public schools is more than $4.3 billion annually for the state’s taxpayers. Furthermore, the state’s admission of illegal immigrants into the state’s public universities and community college
Community college
A community college is a type of educational institution. The term can have different meanings in different countries.-Australia:Community colleges carry on the tradition of adult education, which was established in Australia around mid 19th century when evening classes were held to help adults...
s at taxpayer subsidized in-state tuition rates costs the city and state’s taxpayers an additional $29–38 million per year .
Medical
Medical care provided to illegal immigrants is costly for New York City’s legal residents. According to a 2002 report by the United States General Accounting Office, in-patient care in hospitals provided to illegal immigrants cost the state $474 million [12]. However, this figure fails to include the out-patient costs associated with treating the illegal immigrant population in emergency rooms. When these figures are included, the overall taxpayer-funded, unreimbursed medical outlays for health care provided to the state’s illegal immigrant population amount to an estimated $690 million a year [6].Law Enforcement
Although New York City does not check immigration status when illegal immigrants seek medical attention or education services, the city does check the immigration status of anyone who commits a crimeCrime
Crime is the breach of rules or laws for which some governing authority can ultimately prescribe a conviction...
[7]. In 1994, the Urban Institute
Urban Institute
The Urban Institute is a Washington, D.C.-based think tank that carries out nonpartisan economic and social policy research, collects data, evaluates social programs, educates the public on key domestic issues, and provides advice and technical assistance to developing governments abroad...
estimated the illegal immigrant prisoner population to be 2,158 persons. As of 2005, the number of deportable immigrant prisoner-years in New York facilities was about 6,500. In New York City alone, the number of deportable immigrant prisoner-years was 1,656 . These prisoners have large costs for New York City’s legal residents. The total salary-related incarceration
Incarceration
Incarceration is the detention of a person in prison, typically as punishment for a crime .People are most commonly incarcerated upon suspicion or conviction of committing a crime, and different jurisdictions have differing laws governing the function of incarceration within a larger system of...
costs are about $208 million per year, and the uncompensated cost of incarcerating deportable illegal immigrants in New York’s state and local prisons amounts to about $165 million a year.
Taxpayer Costs
According to the Center for Immigration StudiesCenter for Immigration Studies
The Center for Immigration Studies is a non-profit research organization that advocates Immigration reduction in the United States. Founded in 1985, its executive director is Mark Krikorian. As a 501 organization, it is subject to limits or absolute prohibitions on engaging in political...
, which favors tougher immigration enforcement, almost half the households headed by an illegal immigrant are receiving welfare
Welfare
Welfare refers to a broad discourse which may hold certain implications regarding the provision of a minimal level of wellbeing and social support for all citizens without the stigma of charity. This is termed "social solidarity"...
, food assistance and health benefits for their children [8].
In total, the illegal immigrant population residing in New York costs the state’s taxpayers more than $5 billion per year for education, medical care and incarceration costs according to the Federation for American Immigration Reform . On a per person basis, the annual tax burden amounts to about $874 per New York household headed by a native-born resident [6]. Even if the estimated $730 million in sales, income and property taxes collected from illegal immigrants are subtracted from the fiscal outlays, net costs still amount to more than $4.5 billion per year for the city and state’s taxpayers .
Laws and Regulations
In October 1986, Congress passed the Immigration Reform and Control Act (ICRA), which authorized legalization for illegal immigrants who could prove they had resided in the U.S. continually, although without appropriate documentation, since January 1, 1982 [11]. About 171,000 New York foreign residents (118,200 long-term illegal residents and 52,900 illegal agricultural workers) received legal residence as a result of the 1986 amnestyAmnesty
Amnesty is a legislative or executive act by which a state restores those who may have been guilty of an offense against it to the positions of innocent people, without changing the laws defining the offense. It includes more than pardon, in as much as it obliterates all legal remembrance of the...
.
Currently, New York City has a sanctuary policy that accommodates illegal immigrants by prohibiting its police from asking about immigration status . As Mayor Bloomberg explained, “Our general policy in this area protects the confidentiality of law-abiding immigrants, regardless of their status, when they report a crime or visit a hospital or send their children to school” [7].
On September 17, 2003, Mayor Bloomberg issued Executive Order 41 to protect the privacy of illegal immigrants and to grant them access to City services that they need and are entitled to receive. According to Executive Order 41, if an illegal immigrant goes to a City agency to request certain services or benefits, City employees will not ask about his immigration status unless it is required by law or necessary to determine whether he is eligible to receive those services or benefits. Furthermore, if an illegal immigrant is the victim or witness of a crime, or if he calls or approaches the police seeking assistance, police officer
Police officer
A police officer is a warranted employee of a police force...
s will not inquire about his immigration status [9].
Further Resources
Ciment, James, ed. "New York City." Encyclopedia of American Immigration. Vol. 3. Armonk, NY: M.E Sharpe, 2001.Krase, Jerome, and Ray Hutchison. Race and Ethnicity in New York City. Vol. 7. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Ltd, 2004.