Hopi
Encyclopedia
The Hopi are a federally recognized tribe of indigenous
Native American
people, who primarily live on the 2531.773 sq mi (6,557.3 km²) Hopi Reservation
in northeastern Arizona
. The Hopi area according to the 2000 census
has a population of 6,946 people. Their Hopi language
is one of the 30 of the Uto-Aztecan language family.
The Hopi Reservation is entirely surrounded by the much larger Navajo Reservation. The two nations used to share the Navajo-Hopi Joint Use Area, but this was a source of conflict. The partition of this area, commonly known as Big Mountain, by Acts of Congress in 1974 and 1996, has also resulted in long-term controversy.
, especially from the AD1100s through the 1300s, when they abandoned their large villages. No researchers have been able to determine the reason, although it is likely that a drying of watercourses would have forced the peoples away.
is one of four original Hopi villages, and one of the oldest continuously inhabited villages within the territory of the United States. In the 1540s the village was recorded as having 1,500–3,000 residents.
an contact with the Hopi was by the Spanish
in 1540. Spanish General Francisco Vásquez de Coronado
went to North America to explore the land. While at the Zuni villages, he learned of the Hopi tribe. Coronado dispatched Pedro de Tovar and other members of their party to find the Hopi villages. The Spanish wrote that the first Hopi village they visited was Awatovi
. They noted that there were about 16,000 Hopi and Zuni people. A few years later, the Spanish explorer García López de Cárdenas
investigated the Rio Grande
and met the Hopi. They warmly entertained Cardenas and his men and directed him on his journey.
In 1582–1583 the Hopi were visited by Antonio de Espejo
’s expedition. He noted that there were five Hopi villages and around 12,000 Hopi people. During these early years, the Spanish explored and colonized the southwestern region of the New World, but never sent many forces or settlers to the Hopi country. Their visits to the Hopi were random and spread out over many years. Many times the visits were from military explorations.
The Spanish colonized near the Rio Grande and, because the Hopi did not live near rivers that gave access to the Río Grande, the Spanish never left any troops on their land. The Spanish were accompanied by missionaries, Catholic
friars. Beginning in 1629, with the arrival of 30 friars in Hopi country, the Franciscan Period started. The Franciscans had missionaries assigned and built a church at Awatovi. The Hopi originally were against conversion to Catholicism. After an incident where Father Porras purportedly restored the sight of a blind youth by placing a cross over his eyes, the Hopi at Awatovi believed in Christianity
. Most Hopi in the other villages continued to resist conversion, wanting to maintain their own ways.
. Eventually the Rio Grande Pueblo
Indians suggested a revolt in the year 1680, and Hopi supported them.
This was the first time that different Pueblo people had worked together to drive the Spanish colonists away. The Hopi revolted against the Spanish, attacking missions, killing friars and destroying the Catholic churches. After the revolt it took two decades for the Spanish to reassert their control over the Rio Grande Pueblos. Spanish influence in the distant Hopi country was limited, but by 1700, the friars had begun rebuilding a smaller church at Awatovi. During the winter of 1700–01, the other Hopi villages sacked Awatovi
at the request of the village chief, killed the men of the village, and carried off the women and children. Despite intermittent attempts in the course of the 17th century, the Spanish failed to reestablish a presence in the Hopi country.
In 1849, James S. Calhoun
was appointed official Indian agent
of Indian Affairs for the Southwest Territory of the U.S. He had headquarters in Santa Fe
and was responsible for all of the Indian residents of the area. The first formal meeting between the Hopi and the U.S Government occurred in 1850 when seven Hopi leaders made the trip to Santa Fe to meet with Calhoun. They wanted the government to provide protection against the Navajo
, an Apachean-language tribe, but distinct from other Apache. At this time, the Hopi leader was Nakwaiyamtewa.
The US established Fort Defiance
in 1851 in Arizona
, and placed troops in Navajo country to deal with their threats to the Hopi. General James J. Carleton, with the assistance of Kit Carson
, was assigned to travel through the area. They “captured” the Navajo natives and forced them to the fort. As a result of the Long Walk of the Navajo
, the Hopi enjoyed a short period of peace.
In 1847, Mormons
founded Utah
and tried to convert the Indians to Mormonism. Jacob Hamblin
, a Mormon missionary, first made a trip into Hopi country in 1858. He was on good terms with the Hopi Indians, and in 1875 a LDS Church was built on Hopi land.
in Washington D.C. Loololma, village chief of Oraibi at the time, was very impressed with Washington. As he concluded that education allowed the whites to live that way, he returned wanting a formal school to be built for the Hopi children. In 1886, twenty of the Hopi leaders signed a petition sent to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs requesting that a school be built on their land. In 1887, Thomas Keams opened Keams Canyon Boarding School at Keams Canyon for the Hopi children.
The Oraibi people did not support the school and refused to send their children 35 miles (56.3 km) away from their villages. The Keams School was organized to teach the Hopi youth the ways of European-American civilization: forcing them to use English and give up their traditional ways. The children were forced to abandon their tribal identity and completely take on the European-American culture. They received haircuts, new clothes, took on Anglo names, and learned English. The boys learned farming and carpentry skills, while the girls were taught ironing, sewing and “civilized” dining. Keams School also reinforced American religions. The American Baptist Home Mission Society provided the students with services every morning and religious teachings during the week. In 1890, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs arrived in Hopi country with other government officials to review the progress of the new school. Seeing that few students were enrolled, they returned with federal troops who threatened to arrest the Hopi parents if they refused to send their children to school. The Commissioner took children to fill the school.
. The Hopi and the Navajo
did not have a conception of land being bounded and divided. They lived on the land that their ancestors did. On December 16, 1882 President Arthur passed an executive order creating a reservation for the Hopi. It was much smaller than the Navajo reservation, which was the largest in the country.
The Hopi reservation
was originally a rectangle 55 by 70 miles (112.7 km), in the middle of the Navajo Reservation, with their village lands taking about half of the land. The reservation prevented encroachment by white settlers, but it did not protect the Hopis against the Navajos.
The Hopi and the Navajo continued to fight over land, and they had different models of sustainability, as the Navajo were sheepherders. Eventually the Hopi went before the Senate Committee of Interior and Insular Affairs to ask them to help provide a solution to the dispute. The tribes argued over around 1800000 acres (7,284.3 km²) of land in northern Arizona. In 1887 the U.S Government passed the Dawes Allotment Act. The purpose was to divide up communal tribal land into individual allotments by household, to encourage a model of European-American style subsistence farming on individually owned family plots of 640 acres (2.6 km²) or less. The Department of Interior would declare remaining land "surplus" to the tribe's needs and make it available for purchase by U.S citizens. For the Hopi, the Act would destroy their ability to farm, which was their main means of income. The Bureau of Indian Affairs
did not set up land allotments in the Southwest.
In 1894, a group of Hopi parents announced that they were against the ideas of Washington and did not want their children to be exposed to the culture of the white American people. The government sent in troops to arrest the 19 parents and sent them to Alcatraz Prison, where they stayed for a year. Another Oraibi leader, Lomahongyoma, competed with Lololoma for village leadership. In 1906 the village split after a battle between Hostiles and Friendlies. The conservative Hostiles left and formed a new village, known as Hotevilla.
at this time had 22,500 members and have consistently increased in population. During the early years of this century, only about 3% of Hopis lived off the reservation. In 1924 Congress officially declared Native Americans to be U.S citizens.
Under the Indian Reorganization Act
of 1934, the Hopi established a constitution to create their own tribal government, and in 1936 elected a Tribal Council. The Preamble to the Hopi constitution states that they are a self-governing tribe, focused on working together for peace and agreements between villages in order to preserve the “good things of Hopi life.” The Constitution consists of thirteen different “Articles,” all with a different topic of interest. The articles cover the topics of territory, membership, and organization of their government with a legislative, executive
and judicial branch. The rest of the articles discuss the twelve villages recognized by the tribe, lands, elections, Bill of Rights and more.
kept moving their villages closer and closer to Hopi land, causing the Hopi to raise the land issue with the U.S Government. This resulted in the establishment of “District 6” which placed a boundary around the Hopi villages on the first, second, and third mesas, thinning the reservation to 501501 acres (2,029.5 km²). In 1962 the courts issued the “Opinion, Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law and Judgment,” which stated that the U.S government did not grant the Navajo
any type of permission to reside on the Hopi Reservation
that was declared in 1882; and that the remaining Hopi land was to be shared with the Navajo.
Between 1961–1964, the Hopi tribal council signed leases with the U.S Government that allowed for companies to explore and drill for oil, gas and minerals within Hopi country. This drilling brought over 3 million dollars to the Hopi Tribe. In 1974, The Navajo-Hopi Land Settlement Act was passed. It created the Navajo-Hopi Indian Relocation Commission, which forced the relocation of any Hopi or Navajo living on the other’s land. In 1992, the Hopi Reservation was increased to 1500000 acres (6,070.3 km²).
is mined yearly. Peabody Western Coal Company is one of the largest coal operations on Hopi land, with long-time permits for continued mining.
The tribe's 2010 operating budget was $21.8 million, and projected mining revenues for 2010 was $12.8 million.
The Hopi Economic Development Corporation is the tribal enterprise tasked with creating diverse, viable economic opportunities. The HEDC oversees the Hopi Cultural Center and Walpi Housing Management. Other HEDC businesses include the Hopi Three Canyon Ranches, between Flagstaff and Winslow; and the 26 Bar Ranch in Eagar
; Hopi Travel Plaza in Holbrook
; three commercial properties in Flagstaff; and the Kokopelli Inn in Sedona
.
Tourism is a source of income, and the tribe's opening of the 100-room Moenkopi Legacy Inn and Suites in Moenkopi, Arizona
, near Tuba City, Arizona
, is the second hotel on the reservation. It provides non-Hopi a venue for entertainment, lectures, and educational demonstrations, as well as tours and lodging. The project is expected to support 400 jobs. The tribe operates the Tuuvi Travel Center and Tuuvi Café in Moenkopi.
The Hopi people have repeatedly voted against gambling casinos as an economic opportunity.
, Hopituh Shi-nu-mu ("The Peaceful People" or "Peaceful Little Ones"). The Hopi Dictionary gives the primary meaning of the word "Hopi" as: "behaving one, one who is mannered, civilized, peaceable, polite, who adheres to the Hopi way." In the past, Hopi sometimes used the term "Hopi" and its cognates to refer to the Pueblo peoples
in general, in contrast to other, more warlike tribes.
Hopi is a concept deeply rooted in the culture's religion, spirituality, and its view of morality and ethics. To be Hopi is to strive toward this concept, which involves a state of total reverence and respect for all things, to be at peace with these things, and to live in accordance with the instructions of Maasaw, the Creator or Caretaker of Earth. The Hopi observe their traditional ceremonies for the benefit of the entire world.
Traditionally, Hopi are organized into matrilineal clans. When a man marries, the children from the relationship are members of his wife's clan. These clan organizations extend across all villages. Children are named by the women of the father's clan. On the twentieth day of a baby's life, the women of the paternal clan gather, each woman bringing a name and a gift for the child. In some cases where many relatives would attend, a child could be given over forty names, for example. The child's parents generally decide the name to be used from these names. Current practice is to either use a non-Hopi or English name or the parent's chosen Hopi name. A person may also change the name upon initiation into one of the religious societies, such as the Kachina
society, or with a major life event.
The Hopi practice a complete cycle of traditional ceremonies although not all villages retain or had the complete ceremonial cycle. These ceremonies take place according to the lunar calendar
and are observed in each of the Hopi villages. Like other Native American groups, the Hopi have been influenced by Christianity and the missionary work of several Christian denominations. Few have converted enough to Christianity to drop their traditional religious practices.
Traditionally the Hopi are highly skilled micro or subsistence farmers. The Hopi also are part of the wider cash economy; a significant number of Hopi have mainstream jobs; others earn a living by creating high-quality Hopi art, notably the carving of Kachina dolls, the expert crafting of earthenware ceramics, and the design and production of fine jewelry, especially sterling silver.
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples are ethnic groups that are defined as indigenous according to one of the various definitions of the term, there is no universally accepted definition but most of which carry connotations of being the "original inhabitants" of a territory....
Native American
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
people, who primarily live on the 2531.773 sq mi (6,557.3 km²) Hopi Reservation
Hopi Reservation
The Hopi Reservation, or simply Hopi, is a Native American reservation for the Hopi and Arizona Tewa people, surrounded entirely by the Navajo Nation, in Navajo and Coconino counties of Arizona, USA. The site in north-eastern Arizona has a land area of 2,531.773 sq mi and as of the 2000 census had...
in northeastern Arizona
Arizona
Arizona ; is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the western United States and the mountain west. The capital and largest city is Phoenix...
. The Hopi area according to the 2000 census
United States Census, 2000
The Twenty-second United States Census, known as Census 2000 and conducted by the Census Bureau, determined the resident population of the United States on April 1, 2000, to be 281,421,906, an increase of 13.2% over the 248,709,873 persons enumerated during the 1990 Census...
has a population of 6,946 people. Their Hopi language
Hopi language
Hopi is a Uto-Aztecan language spoken by the Hopi people of northeastern Arizona, USA, although today some Hopi are monolingual English speakers.The use of the language has gradually declined over the course of the 20th century...
is one of the 30 of the Uto-Aztecan language family.
The Hopi Reservation is entirely surrounded by the much larger Navajo Reservation. The two nations used to share the Navajo-Hopi Joint Use Area, but this was a source of conflict. The partition of this area, commonly known as Big Mountain, by Acts of Congress in 1974 and 1996, has also resulted in long-term controversy.
History
The Hopi and Zuni are believed to have been descended from the ancient Puebloan cultures who constructed large apartment-house complexes in northeastern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico. They lived along the Mogollon RimMogollon Rim
The Mogollon Rim is a topographical and geological feature running across the U.S. state of Arizona. It extends approximately from northern Yavapai County eastward to near the border with New Mexico.-Description:...
, especially from the AD1100s through the 1300s, when they abandoned their large villages. No researchers have been able to determine the reason, although it is likely that a drying of watercourses would have forced the peoples away.
Oraibi
OraibiOraibi
Oraibi, also referred to as Old Oraibi, is a Hopi village in Navajo County, Arizona, United States, in the northeastern part of the state. Known as Orayvi by the native inhabitants, it is located on Third Mesa on the Hopi Reservation near Kykotsmovi Village...
is one of four original Hopi villages, and one of the oldest continuously inhabited villages within the territory of the United States. In the 1540s the village was recorded as having 1,500–3,000 residents.
Early European contact, 1540–1680
The first recorded EuropeEurope
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
an contact with the Hopi was by the Spanish
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire comprised territories and colonies administered directly by Spain in Europe, in America, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was therefore one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its world power....
in 1540. Spanish General Francisco Vásquez de Coronado
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado
Francisco Vásquez de Coronado y Luján was a Spanish conquistador, who visited New Mexico and other parts of what are now the southwestern United States between 1540 and 1542...
went to North America to explore the land. While at the Zuni villages, he learned of the Hopi tribe. Coronado dispatched Pedro de Tovar and other members of their party to find the Hopi villages. The Spanish wrote that the first Hopi village they visited was Awatovi
Awatovi Ruins
Awatovi Ruins is a National Historic Landmark in Navajo County, Arizona, United States, designated in 1964. In 1540, Coronado's men visited this village. What remains are the ruins of a five hundred year old pueblo. There are also ruins from a Spanish mission built in the 17th century...
. They noted that there were about 16,000 Hopi and Zuni people. A few years later, the Spanish explorer García López de Cárdenas
García López de Cárdenas
García López de Cárdenas, , is credited with the first European discovery of the Grand Canyon.- Life :Cárdenas was born in Llerena, Spain, son to Alonso de Cárdenas y doña Elvira de Figueroa and Maria García Osorio. He was the comendador of Caravaca.López de Cárdenas was conquistador attached to...
investigated the Rio Grande
Rio Grande
The Rio Grande is a river that flows from southwestern Colorado in the United States to the Gulf of Mexico. Along the way it forms part of the Mexico – United States border. Its length varies as its course changes...
and met the Hopi. They warmly entertained Cardenas and his men and directed him on his journey.
In 1582–1583 the Hopi were visited by Antonio de Espejo
Antonio de Espejo
Antonio de Espejo was a Spanish explorer who led an expedition into New Mexico and Arizona in 1582-1583. The expedition created interest in establishing a Spanish colony among the Pueblo Indians of the Rio Grande valley.-Life:...
’s expedition. He noted that there were five Hopi villages and around 12,000 Hopi people. During these early years, the Spanish explored and colonized the southwestern region of the New World, but never sent many forces or settlers to the Hopi country. Their visits to the Hopi were random and spread out over many years. Many times the visits were from military explorations.
The Spanish colonized near the Rio Grande and, because the Hopi did not live near rivers that gave access to the Río Grande, the Spanish never left any troops on their land. The Spanish were accompanied by missionaries, Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...
friars. Beginning in 1629, with the arrival of 30 friars in Hopi country, the Franciscan Period started. The Franciscans had missionaries assigned and built a church at Awatovi. The Hopi originally were against conversion to Catholicism. After an incident where Father Porras purportedly restored the sight of a blind youth by placing a cross over his eyes, the Hopi at Awatovi believed in Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
. Most Hopi in the other villages continued to resist conversion, wanting to maintain their own ways.
Pueblo Revolt of 1680
The priests were not very successful in converting the natives, and persecuted the Hopi for keeping their religion. The Spaniards took advantage of Hopi labor and the products they produced. The harsh treatment by the Spanish caused the Hopi to become less tolerant. The only significant conversions were at the pueblo of AwatoviAwatovi Ruins
Awatovi Ruins is a National Historic Landmark in Navajo County, Arizona, United States, designated in 1964. In 1540, Coronado's men visited this village. What remains are the ruins of a five hundred year old pueblo. There are also ruins from a Spanish mission built in the 17th century...
. Eventually the Rio Grande Pueblo
Pueblo
Pueblo is a term used to describe modern communities of Native Americans in the Southwestern United States of America. The first Spanish explorers of the Southwest used this term to describe the communities housed in apartment-like structures built of stone, adobe mud, and other local material...
Indians suggested a revolt in the year 1680, and Hopi supported them.
This was the first time that different Pueblo people had worked together to drive the Spanish colonists away. The Hopi revolted against the Spanish, attacking missions, killing friars and destroying the Catholic churches. After the revolt it took two decades for the Spanish to reassert their control over the Rio Grande Pueblos. Spanish influence in the distant Hopi country was limited, but by 1700, the friars had begun rebuilding a smaller church at Awatovi. During the winter of 1700–01, the other Hopi villages sacked Awatovi
Awatovi Ruins
Awatovi Ruins is a National Historic Landmark in Navajo County, Arizona, United States, designated in 1964. In 1540, Coronado's men visited this village. What remains are the ruins of a five hundred year old pueblo. There are also ruins from a Spanish mission built in the 17th century...
at the request of the village chief, killed the men of the village, and carried off the women and children. Despite intermittent attempts in the course of the 17th century, the Spanish failed to reestablish a presence in the Hopi country.
Hopi-U.S relations, 1849–1946
James S. Calhoun
James S. Calhoun was best known as the Governor of New Mexico Territory from 1851 to 1852. He had many careers, though, including time as a Georgian politician, military colonel, and bureaucrat in the United States government....
was appointed official Indian agent
Indian agent
In United States history, an Indian agent was an individual authorized to interact with Native American tribes on behalf of the U.S. government.-Indian agents:*Leander Clark was agent for the Sac and Fox in Iowa beginning in 1866....
of Indian Affairs for the Southwest Territory of the U.S. He had headquarters in Santa Fe
Santa Fe, New Mexico
Santa Fe is the capital of the U.S. state of New Mexico. It is the fourth-largest city in the state and is the seat of . Santa Fe had a population of 67,947 in the 2010 census...
and was responsible for all of the Indian residents of the area. The first formal meeting between the Hopi and the U.S Government occurred in 1850 when seven Hopi leaders made the trip to Santa Fe to meet with Calhoun. They wanted the government to provide protection against the Navajo
Navajo people
The Navajo of the Southwestern United States are the largest single federally recognized tribe of the United States of America. The Navajo Nation has 300,048 enrolled tribal members. The Navajo Nation constitutes an independent governmental body which manages the Navajo Indian reservation in the...
, an Apachean-language tribe, but distinct from other Apache. At this time, the Hopi leader was Nakwaiyamtewa.
The US established Fort Defiance
Fort Defiance, Arizona
Fort Defiance is a census-designated place in Apache County, Arizona, United States. The population was 4,061 at the 2000 census.- History :...
in 1851 in Arizona
Arizona
Arizona ; is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the western United States and the mountain west. The capital and largest city is Phoenix...
, and placed troops in Navajo country to deal with their threats to the Hopi. General James J. Carleton, with the assistance of Kit Carson
Kit Carson
Christopher Houston "Kit" Carson was an American frontiersman and Indian fighter. Carson left home in rural present-day Missouri at age 16 and became a Mountain man and trapper in the West. Carson explored the west to California, and north through the Rocky Mountains. He lived among and married...
, was assigned to travel through the area. They “captured” the Navajo natives and forced them to the fort. As a result of the Long Walk of the Navajo
Long Walk of the Navajo
The Long Walk of the Navajo, also called the Long Walk to Bosque Redondo , refers to the 1864 deportation of the Navajo people by the U.S. Government. Navajos were forced to walk at gunpoint from their reservation in what is now Arizona to eastern New Mexico. The trip lasted about 18 days...
, the Hopi enjoyed a short period of peace.
In 1847, Mormons
Mormons
The Mormons are a religious and cultural group related to Mormonism, a religion started by Joseph Smith during the American Second Great Awakening. A vast majority of Mormons are members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints while a minority are members of other independent churches....
founded Utah
Utah
Utah is a state in the Western United States. It was the 45th state to join the Union, on January 4, 1896. Approximately 80% of Utah's 2,763,885 people live along the Wasatch Front, centering on Salt Lake City. This leaves vast expanses of the state nearly uninhabited, making the population the...
and tried to convert the Indians to Mormonism. Jacob Hamblin
Jacob Hamblin
Jacob Vernon Hamblin was a Western pioneer, Mormon missionary, and diplomat to various Native American Tribes of the Southwest and Great Basin. During his life, he helped settle large areas of southern Utah and northern Arizona where he was seen as an honest broker between Mormon settlers and the...
, a Mormon missionary, first made a trip into Hopi country in 1858. He was on good terms with the Hopi Indians, and in 1875 a LDS Church was built on Hopi land.
Education
In 1875, the English trader Thomas Keams escorted Hopi leaders to meet President Chester A. ArthurChester A. Arthur
Chester Alan Arthur was the 21st President of the United States . Becoming President after the assassination of President James A. Garfield, Arthur struggled to overcome suspicions of his beginnings as a politician from the New York City Republican machine, succeeding at that task by embracing...
in Washington D.C. Loololma, village chief of Oraibi at the time, was very impressed with Washington. As he concluded that education allowed the whites to live that way, he returned wanting a formal school to be built for the Hopi children. In 1886, twenty of the Hopi leaders signed a petition sent to the Commissioner of Indian Affairs requesting that a school be built on their land. In 1887, Thomas Keams opened Keams Canyon Boarding School at Keams Canyon for the Hopi children.
The Oraibi people did not support the school and refused to send their children 35 miles (56.3 km) away from their villages. The Keams School was organized to teach the Hopi youth the ways of European-American civilization: forcing them to use English and give up their traditional ways. The children were forced to abandon their tribal identity and completely take on the European-American culture. They received haircuts, new clothes, took on Anglo names, and learned English. The boys learned farming and carpentry skills, while the girls were taught ironing, sewing and “civilized” dining. Keams School also reinforced American religions. The American Baptist Home Mission Society provided the students with services every morning and religious teachings during the week. In 1890, the Commissioner of Indian Affairs arrived in Hopi country with other government officials to review the progress of the new school. Seeing that few students were enrolled, they returned with federal troops who threatened to arrest the Hopi parents if they refused to send their children to school. The Commissioner took children to fill the school.
Hopi land
The Hopi have always viewed their land as sacred. Agriculture is a very important part of their culture, and their villages are spread out across the northern part of ArizonaArizona
Arizona ; is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. It is also part of the western United States and the mountain west. The capital and largest city is Phoenix...
. The Hopi and the Navajo
Navajo people
The Navajo of the Southwestern United States are the largest single federally recognized tribe of the United States of America. The Navajo Nation has 300,048 enrolled tribal members. The Navajo Nation constitutes an independent governmental body which manages the Navajo Indian reservation in the...
did not have a conception of land being bounded and divided. They lived on the land that their ancestors did. On December 16, 1882 President Arthur passed an executive order creating a reservation for the Hopi. It was much smaller than the Navajo reservation, which was the largest in the country.
The Hopi reservation
Hopi Reservation
The Hopi Reservation, or simply Hopi, is a Native American reservation for the Hopi and Arizona Tewa people, surrounded entirely by the Navajo Nation, in Navajo and Coconino counties of Arizona, USA. The site in north-eastern Arizona has a land area of 2,531.773 sq mi and as of the 2000 census had...
was originally a rectangle 55 by 70 miles (112.7 km), in the middle of the Navajo Reservation, with their village lands taking about half of the land. The reservation prevented encroachment by white settlers, but it did not protect the Hopis against the Navajos.
The Hopi and the Navajo continued to fight over land, and they had different models of sustainability, as the Navajo were sheepherders. Eventually the Hopi went before the Senate Committee of Interior and Insular Affairs to ask them to help provide a solution to the dispute. The tribes argued over around 1800000 acres (7,284.3 km²) of land in northern Arizona. In 1887 the U.S Government passed the Dawes Allotment Act. The purpose was to divide up communal tribal land into individual allotments by household, to encourage a model of European-American style subsistence farming on individually owned family plots of 640 acres (2.6 km²) or less. The Department of Interior would declare remaining land "surplus" to the tribe's needs and make it available for purchase by U.S citizens. For the Hopi, the Act would destroy their ability to farm, which was their main means of income. The Bureau of Indian Affairs
Bureau of Indian Affairs
The Bureau of Indian Affairs is an agency of the federal government of the United States within the US Department of the Interior. It is responsible for the administration and management of of land held in trust by the United States for Native Americans in the United States, Native American...
did not set up land allotments in the Southwest.
Oraibi split
The chief of the Oraibi, Lololoma, was very enthusiastic regarding Hopi education, but the people were divided on this issue. Most of the village was conservative and refused to allow their children to attend school. The Indians were referred to as the “hostiles” because they opposed the American government and its attempts to force assimilation. The rest of the Oraibi were called the “friendlies” because of their acceptance of the white people. The “hostiles” refused to let their children attend school. In 1893, the Oraibi Day School was opened in the Oraibi village. Although the school was within the village, the traditional parents still refused to allow their children to attend.In 1894, a group of Hopi parents announced that they were against the ideas of Washington and did not want their children to be exposed to the culture of the white American people. The government sent in troops to arrest the 19 parents and sent them to Alcatraz Prison, where they stayed for a year. Another Oraibi leader, Lomahongyoma, competed with Lololoma for village leadership. In 1906 the village split after a battle between Hostiles and Friendlies. The conservative Hostiles left and formed a new village, known as Hotevilla.
Hopi recognition
At the turn of the century, the U.S Government established day schools, missionaries, farming assistants and physicians on every Indian reservation. This policy required that every reservation set up its own Indian-police and Tribal courts, and appoint a chief or leader who would represent their tribe within the U.S Government. In 1910 in the Census for Indians, the Hopi Tribe had a total of 2,000 members, which was the highest in 20 years. The NavajoNavajo people
The Navajo of the Southwestern United States are the largest single federally recognized tribe of the United States of America. The Navajo Nation has 300,048 enrolled tribal members. The Navajo Nation constitutes an independent governmental body which manages the Navajo Indian reservation in the...
at this time had 22,500 members and have consistently increased in population. During the early years of this century, only about 3% of Hopis lived off the reservation. In 1924 Congress officially declared Native Americans to be U.S citizens.
Under the Indian Reorganization Act
Indian Reorganization Act
The Indian Reorganization Act of June 18, 1934 the Indian New Deal, was U.S. federal legislation that secured certain rights to Native Americans, including Alaska Natives...
of 1934, the Hopi established a constitution to create their own tribal government, and in 1936 elected a Tribal Council. The Preamble to the Hopi constitution states that they are a self-governing tribe, focused on working together for peace and agreements between villages in order to preserve the “good things of Hopi life.” The Constitution consists of thirteen different “Articles,” all with a different topic of interest. The articles cover the topics of territory, membership, and organization of their government with a legislative, executive
Executive (government)
Executive branch of Government is the part of government that has sole authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state bureaucracy. The division of power into separate branches of government is central to the idea of the separation of powers.In many countries, the term...
and judicial branch. The rest of the articles discuss the twelve villages recognized by the tribe, lands, elections, Bill of Rights and more.
Hopi-Navajo land disputes
From the 1940s to the 1970s, the NavajoNavajo people
The Navajo of the Southwestern United States are the largest single federally recognized tribe of the United States of America. The Navajo Nation has 300,048 enrolled tribal members. The Navajo Nation constitutes an independent governmental body which manages the Navajo Indian reservation in the...
kept moving their villages closer and closer to Hopi land, causing the Hopi to raise the land issue with the U.S Government. This resulted in the establishment of “District 6” which placed a boundary around the Hopi villages on the first, second, and third mesas, thinning the reservation to 501501 acres (2,029.5 km²). In 1962 the courts issued the “Opinion, Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law and Judgment,” which stated that the U.S government did not grant the Navajo
Navajo people
The Navajo of the Southwestern United States are the largest single federally recognized tribe of the United States of America. The Navajo Nation has 300,048 enrolled tribal members. The Navajo Nation constitutes an independent governmental body which manages the Navajo Indian reservation in the...
any type of permission to reside on the Hopi Reservation
Hopi Reservation
The Hopi Reservation, or simply Hopi, is a Native American reservation for the Hopi and Arizona Tewa people, surrounded entirely by the Navajo Nation, in Navajo and Coconino counties of Arizona, USA. The site in north-eastern Arizona has a land area of 2,531.773 sq mi and as of the 2000 census had...
that was declared in 1882; and that the remaining Hopi land was to be shared with the Navajo.
Between 1961–1964, the Hopi tribal council signed leases with the U.S Government that allowed for companies to explore and drill for oil, gas and minerals within Hopi country. This drilling brought over 3 million dollars to the Hopi Tribe. In 1974, The Navajo-Hopi Land Settlement Act was passed. It created the Navajo-Hopi Indian Relocation Commission, which forced the relocation of any Hopi or Navajo living on the other’s land. In 1992, the Hopi Reservation was increased to 1500000 acres (6,070.3 km²).
Today
The Hopi tribe is federally recognized and headquartered in Kykotsmovi, Arizona. Their current tribal chairperson is Leroy Shingiotewa. The tribal council was established on December 19, 1936, and the current administration is as follows:- Upper MoencopiMoenkopi, ArizonaMoenkopi is a census-designated place in Coconino County, Arizona, United States, adjacent to the southeast side of Tuba City off U.S. Route 160. The population was 901 at the 2000 census....
:- Everett Calnimptewa
- Danny Humetewa Sr.
- Wayne Kuwanhyoima
- Leroy Sumatzkuku
- BacaviHotevilla-Bacavi, ArizonaHotevilla-Bacavi is a census-designated place in Navajo County, Arizona, United States, on the Hopi Reservation...
:- Velma Kalyesvah
- Arvin Puhuyesva
- Mike R. Puhuyesva
- KykotsmoviKykotsmovi Village, ArizonaKykotsmovi Village is a census-designated place in Navajo County, Arizona, and the home of the Hopi tribal government...
:- Danny Honanie
- Norman Honanie
- Phillip R. Quochytewa, Sr.
- Nada Talayumptewa
- MishongnoviSecond Mesa, ArizonaSecond Mesa is a census-designated place in Navajo County, Arizona on the Hopi Reservation. As of the 2000 census, the CDP population was 814, spread among three Hopi Indian villages atop the 5,700-foot mesa: Musungnuvi , Supawlavi , and Songoopavi...
:- Emma Anderson
- Archie Duwahoyeoma
- Leon Koruh
- Owen Numkena
- First Mesa
- Alvin Chaca
- Leroy Lewis
- Dale Sinquah
- Celestino Youvella
- Tribal Secretary: Mary Felter
- Sergeant at Arms: Violet Sinquah
- Tribal Treasurer: Russell Mockta, Jr.
Economic development
The Hopi tribe earns most of its income from natural resources. On the 1800000 acres (7,284.3 km²) reservation, a significant amount of coalCoal
Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as anthracite coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure...
is mined yearly. Peabody Western Coal Company is one of the largest coal operations on Hopi land, with long-time permits for continued mining.
The tribe's 2010 operating budget was $21.8 million, and projected mining revenues for 2010 was $12.8 million.
The Hopi Economic Development Corporation is the tribal enterprise tasked with creating diverse, viable economic opportunities. The HEDC oversees the Hopi Cultural Center and Walpi Housing Management. Other HEDC businesses include the Hopi Three Canyon Ranches, between Flagstaff and Winslow; and the 26 Bar Ranch in Eagar
Eagar, Arizona
Eagar is a town in Apache County, Arizona, United States. According to 2006 Census Bureau estimates, the population of the town is 4,126.Eagar was first settled in 1871.-Geography:Eagar is located at ....
; Hopi Travel Plaza in Holbrook
Holbrook, Arizona
-Historical events:*During 1881 & 1882, railroad tracks were laid down and a railroad station was built. The community was then named Holbrook after the first engineer of the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad...
; three commercial properties in Flagstaff; and the Kokopelli Inn in Sedona
Sedona, Arizona
Sedona is a city that straddles the county line between Coconino and Yavapai counties in the northern Verde Valley region of the U.S. state of Arizona...
.
Tourism is a source of income, and the tribe's opening of the 100-room Moenkopi Legacy Inn and Suites in Moenkopi, Arizona
Moenkopi, Arizona
Moenkopi is a census-designated place in Coconino County, Arizona, United States, adjacent to the southeast side of Tuba City off U.S. Route 160. The population was 901 at the 2000 census....
, near Tuba City, Arizona
Tuba City, Arizona
Tuba City is a census-designated place in Coconino County, Arizona, United States. The population was 8,225 at the 2000 census. It is the Dine' Nation's largest community, slightly larger than Shiprock, New Mexico. The Hopi town of Moenkopi lies directly to its southeast.The name of the town...
, is the second hotel on the reservation. It provides non-Hopi a venue for entertainment, lectures, and educational demonstrations, as well as tours and lodging. The project is expected to support 400 jobs. The tribe operates the Tuuvi Travel Center and Tuuvi Café in Moenkopi.
The Hopi people have repeatedly voted against gambling casinos as an economic opportunity.
Culture
The name 'Hopi' is a shortened form of their autonymExonym and endonym
In ethnolinguistics, an endonym or autonym is a local name for a geographical feature, and an exonym or xenonym is a foreign language name for it...
, Hopituh Shi-nu-mu ("The Peaceful People" or "Peaceful Little Ones"). The Hopi Dictionary gives the primary meaning of the word "Hopi" as: "behaving one, one who is mannered, civilized, peaceable, polite, who adheres to the Hopi way." In the past, Hopi sometimes used the term "Hopi" and its cognates to refer to the Pueblo peoples
Pueblo
Pueblo is a term used to describe modern communities of Native Americans in the Southwestern United States of America. The first Spanish explorers of the Southwest used this term to describe the communities housed in apartment-like structures built of stone, adobe mud, and other local material...
in general, in contrast to other, more warlike tribes.
Hopi is a concept deeply rooted in the culture's religion, spirituality, and its view of morality and ethics. To be Hopi is to strive toward this concept, which involves a state of total reverence and respect for all things, to be at peace with these things, and to live in accordance with the instructions of Maasaw, the Creator or Caretaker of Earth. The Hopi observe their traditional ceremonies for the benefit of the entire world.
Traditionally, Hopi are organized into matrilineal clans. When a man marries, the children from the relationship are members of his wife's clan. These clan organizations extend across all villages. Children are named by the women of the father's clan. On the twentieth day of a baby's life, the women of the paternal clan gather, each woman bringing a name and a gift for the child. In some cases where many relatives would attend, a child could be given over forty names, for example. The child's parents generally decide the name to be used from these names. Current practice is to either use a non-Hopi or English name or the parent's chosen Hopi name. A person may also change the name upon initiation into one of the religious societies, such as the Kachina
Kachina
A kachina is a spirit being in western Pueblo cosmology and religious practices. The western Pueblo, Native American cultures located in the southwestern United States, include Hopi, Zuni, Tewa Village , Acoma Pueblo, and Laguna Pueblo. The kachina cult has spread to more eastern Pueblos, e.g....
society, or with a major life event.
The Hopi practice a complete cycle of traditional ceremonies although not all villages retain or had the complete ceremonial cycle. These ceremonies take place according to the lunar calendar
Lunar calendar
A lunar calendar is a calendar that is based on cycles of the lunar phase. A common purely lunar calendar is the Islamic calendar or Hijri calendar. A feature of the Islamic calendar is that a year is always 12 months, so the months are not linked with the seasons and drift each solar year by 11 to...
and are observed in each of the Hopi villages. Like other Native American groups, the Hopi have been influenced by Christianity and the missionary work of several Christian denominations. Few have converted enough to Christianity to drop their traditional religious practices.
Traditionally the Hopi are highly skilled micro or subsistence farmers. The Hopi also are part of the wider cash economy; a significant number of Hopi have mainstream jobs; others earn a living by creating high-quality Hopi art, notably the carving of Kachina dolls, the expert crafting of earthenware ceramics, and the design and production of fine jewelry, especially sterling silver.
Notable Hopi
- Jean FredericksJean FredericksJean Fredericks was a Hopi photographer. He grew up in Old Oraibi, Arizona, a village located on Third Mesa on the Hopi Reservation.-Biography:...
(b. 1906–?), Hopi photographer and former Tribal Council chairman - Diane HumetewaDiane HumetewaDiane J. Humetewa was the United States Attorney for the District of Arizona, serving in that position since December 2007 to August 2009. Humetewa received her law degree in 1993 from the Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law at Arizona State University. A member of the Hopi tribe, Humetewa is the...
, US Attorney for the District of Arizona - Fred KabotieFred KabotieFred Kabotie was a celebrated Hopi painter, silversmith, and educator.-Background and education:Fred Kabotie was born into a highly traditional Hopi family at Songo`opavi, Second Mesa, Arizona, Kabotie. His father belonged to the sun clan and he belonged to the Bluebird Clan...
(ca. 1900–1986), painter and silversmith - Michael KabotieMichael KabotieMichael Kabotie was a Hopi silversmith, painter, and sculptor.-Background:Michael Kabotie was the son of the famous Hopi artist Fred Kabotie, and he grew up in the village of Shungopavi. Kabotie graduated from Haskell Indian School in Lawrence, Kansas in 1961...
(1942–2009), painter, sculptor, and silversmith - Charles LolomaCharles LolomaCharles Loloma was an American artist of Hopi ancestry. He was born in Hopi Third Mesa to Rex and Rachael Loloma. He served in the military in 1941 to 1945, where he was stationed in the Aleutian Islands. Thanks to the GI Bill, Loloma was able to go the Alfred University in New York. In 1954 he...
(1912–1991), jeweler, ceramic artist, and educator - Linda LomahaftewaLinda LomahaftewaLinda Lomahaftewa is a Hopi and Choctaw printmaker, painter, and educator living in Santa Fe, New Mexico.-Background:Linda J. Lomahaftewa was born July 3, 1947 in Phoenix, Arizona. Her parents had met at an Indian boarding school. Her late father was Hopi, her mother, who lives in Arizona, is...
, printmaker, painter, and educator - Helen NahaHelen NahaHelen Naha was the matriarch in a family of well known Hopi potters.She is the daughter-in-law of Paqua Naha . Helen was married to Paqua’s son Archie. She was mostly self-taught, following the style of her mother-in-law and sister-in-law Joy Navasie . Her designs are often based on fragments...
(1922–1993) potter - Tyra NahaTyra NahaTyra Naha represents the fourth generation in a family of well known Hopi potters. She is a Native American potter from the Hopi Nation, Arizona, United States. While she is currently not as well known as her famous elders, she is technically very proficient...
, potter - Dan NaminghaDan NaminghaDan Namingha is an important Native American painter and sculptor. He was born in Keams Canyon, Arizona and is a member of the Hopi-Tewa tribe. He currently lives in Santa Fe, New Mexico.-Education:*University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas...
, (born 1950), Hopi-Tewa painter and sculptor - Elva NampeyoElva NampeyoElva Nampeyo was an American studio potter. She was born in the Corn Clan house where her grandmother Nampeyo resided, atop Hopi First Mesa. She was the daughter of Fannie Nampeyo and Vinton Polacca. As a child Elva would watch her grandmother make pottery and play with the clay...
, potter - Fannie NampeyoFannie NampeyoFannie Nampeyo was a modern and contemporary fine arts potter, who carried on the traditions of her famous mother, Nampeyo of Hano, the grand matriarch of modern Hopi pottery.Fannie was the youngest, and perhaps the most famous, of Nampeyo of Hano's three daughters...
, potter - Iris Nampeyo (NampeyoNampeyoIris Nampeyo was a Hopi potter who lived on the Hopi Reservation in present-day Arizona. She received the English name Iris as an infant, but was better known by her Tewa name, Num-pa-yu, meaning "snake that does not bite"....
) (ca. 1860–1942), potter - Lori PiestewaLori PiestewaSPC Lori Ann Piestewa was a U.S. Army Quartermaster Corps soldier killed during the same Iraqi Army attack in which fellow soldiers Shoshana Johnson and Jessica Lynch sustained injuries. A member of the Hopi tribe, Piestewa was the first Native American woman in history to die in combat while...
(1979–2003), US Army Quartermaster Corps soldier killed in Iraq War - Dextra QuotskuyvaDextra QuotskuyvaDextra Quotskuyva is a Native American potter and artist. She is the great-granddaughter of the Tewa potter Nampeyo of Hano who revived Sikyátki style pottery on Hopi First Mesa...
(b. 1928), potter - Don C. TalayesvaDon C. TalayesvaDon C. Talayesva was a Hopi who is noted for his autobiography, which was written in conjunction with Leo Simmons. Talayesva had begun life in a traditional Hopi manner, but had spent ten years largely in white culture before making a full return to the Hopi way...
(b. 1890–?), autobiographer and traditionalist - Lewis TewanimaLewis TewanimaLouis Tewanima was an American two-time Olympic distance runner and silver medalist in the 10,000 meter run in 1912. He was a Hopi Indian and ran for the Carlisle Indian School where he was a teammate of Jim Thorpe.-Biography:...
(1888–1969), Olympic distance runner and silver medalist - Tuvi (Chief TubaChief TubaTuba was a Hopi leader in the late 19th century. Tuba was the headman of the small Hopi village of Moencopi, roughly fifty miles west of the main villages on the Hopi mesas. However, he apparently was an important person in the village of Oraibi as well...
) (ca. 1810–1887), first Hopi convert to Mormonism after whom Tuba City, Arizona, was named
See also
- Black Mesa Peabody Coal controversy
- Hopi Kachina dollsHopi Kachina dollsHopi Kachina Dolls are effigies made of cottonwood that embody the characteristics of the ceremonial Kachina, the masked spirits of the Hopi Native American tribe...
- Hopi mythologyHopi mythologyThe Hopi maintain a complex religious and mythological tradition stretching back over centuries. However, it is difficult to definitively state what all Hopis as a group believe. Like the oral traditions of many other societies, Hopi mythology is not always told consistently and each Hopi mesa, or...
- Hopi languageHopi languageHopi is a Uto-Aztecan language spoken by the Hopi people of northeastern Arizona, USA, although today some Hopi are monolingual English speakers.The use of the language has gradually declined over the course of the 20th century...
- Hopi ReservationHopi ReservationThe Hopi Reservation, or simply Hopi, is a Native American reservation for the Hopi and Arizona Tewa people, surrounded entirely by the Navajo Nation, in Navajo and Coconino counties of Arizona, USA. The site in north-eastern Arizona has a land area of 2,531.773 sq mi and as of the 2000 census had...
- KachinaKachinaA kachina is a spirit being in western Pueblo cosmology and religious practices. The western Pueblo, Native American cultures located in the southwestern United States, include Hopi, Zuni, Tewa Village , Acoma Pueblo, and Laguna Pueblo. The kachina cult has spread to more eastern Pueblos, e.g....
- KivaKivaA kiva is a room used by modern Puebloans for religious rituals, many of them associated with the kachina belief system. Among the modern Hopi and most other Pueblo peoples, kivas are square-walled and underground, and are used for spiritual ceremonies....
- KikmongwiKikmongwiKikmongwi are traditional village chiefs on the Hopi Reservation in Northeastern Arizona.-Background:The Hopi, an Indian Tribe, effectively have two parallel systems of local government...
- OraibiOraibiOraibi, also referred to as Old Oraibi, is a Hopi village in Navajo County, Arizona, United States, in the northeastern part of the state. Known as Orayvi by the native inhabitants, it is located on Third Mesa on the Hopi Reservation near Kykotsmovi Village...
- Puebloan peoples
- SikyátkiSikyátkiSikyátki is an archeological site and former Hopi village spanning 40,000 to 60,000 square metres on the eastern side of First Mesa, in what is now Navajo County in the U.S. state of Arizona. It was inhabited by Kokop clan of the Hopi from the 14th to the 17th century. Jesse Walter Fewkes led a...
Further reading
- Clemmer, Richard O. "Roads in the Sky: The Hopi Indians In A Century of Change". Boulder: Westview Books, 1995.
- "Voice of Indigenous People – Native People Address the United Nations" Edited by Alexander Ewen, Clear Light Publishers, Santa Fe NM, 1994, 176 pages. Thomas BanyacyaThomas BanyacyaThomas Banyacya was a Hopi Native American traditional leader. One of four Hopis, including David Monongye, Dan Evehema, and Dan Katchongva, who decided or were appointed to reveal Hopi traditional wisdom and teachings, including the Hopi prophecies for the future, to the general public in 1946,...
et al. at the United NationsUnited NationsThe United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace... - Susanne and Jake Page, Hopi, Abradale Press, Harry N. Abrams, 1994, illustrated oversize hardcover, 230 pages, ISBN 0-8109-8127-0, 1982 edition, ISBN 0-8109-1082-9
- Alph Secakuku, "Hopi Kachina Tradition: Following the Sun and Moon" 1995
- Alfonso Ortiz, ed. Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 9, Southwest. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1979. ISBN 047000003610.
- New York Times article, "Reggae Rhythms Speak to an Insular Tribe" by Bruce Weber, September 19, 1999
- Frank Waters, The Book of the Hopi. PenguinPenguin BooksPenguin Books is a publisher founded in 1935 by Sir Allen Lane and V.K. Krishna Menon. Penguin revolutionised publishing in the 1930s through its high quality, inexpensive paperbacks, sold through Woolworths and other high street stores for sixpence. Penguin's success demonstrated that large...
(Non-Classics), (June 30, 1977), ISBN 0-140045279 - Frank Waters, Masked Gods:Navaho & Pueblo Ceremonialism, Swallow Press, 1950; Ohio University PressOhio University PressOhio University Press is part of Ohio University. It publishes under its own name and the imprint Swallow Press....
, 1984, ISBN 0-804006415 - Hopi Nation: Essays on Indigenous Art, Culture, History, and Law, edited by Edna Glenn, John R. Wunder, Willard Hughes Rollings, and C. L. Martin, Ebook, 2008; online at http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/hopination/
External links
- Official Website of the Hopi Tribe
- Official website, Hopi Cultural Preservation Office,
- A Summary of Hopi Native American History
- Summary of the Hopi Indians, their culture and history, by MNSU Museum staff. Accessed 3/27/09
- General information on Hopi, by LM Smith, Four Corners Postcard, accessed 3/27/09
- Frank Waters Foundation, retrieved online February 22, 2008
- Sikyatki (ancestral Hopi) pottery