History of fertilizer
Encyclopedia
The history of fertilizer has largely shaped political, economic, and social circumstances in their traditional uses. Subsequently, there has been a radical reshaping of environmental conditions following the development of chemically synthesized fertilizers.
(1674–1738) first studied the improving effects of the four crop rotation
system that he had observed in use in Flanders
. For this he gained the nickname of Turnip Townshend.
(1803–1883) contributed greatly to the advancement in the understanding of plant nutrition. His influential works first denounced the vitalist theory of humus, arguing first the importance of ammonia
, and later promoting the importance of inorganic minerals to plant nutrition
. Primarily Liebig's work succeeded in exposition of questions for agricultural science to address over the next 50 years.
In England, he attempted to implement his theories commercially through a fertilizer created by treating phosphate of lime in bone meal with sulfuric acid
. Although it was much less expensive than the guano
that was used at the time, it failed because it was not able to be properly absorbed by crops.
(1814–1900) was experimenting with crops and manures at his farm at Harpenden
and was able to produce a practical superphosphate in 1842 from the phosphates in rock and coprolite
s. Encouraged, he employed Sir Joseph Henry Gilbert
, who had studied under Liebig at the University of Giessen
, as director of research
. To this day, the Rothamsted research station the pair founded still investigates the impact of inorganic and organic fertilizers on crop yields.
(1802–1887) pointed out that the amount of nitrogen in various kinds of fertilizers is important.
Metallurgists Percy Gilchrist
(1851–1935) and Sidney Gilchrist Thomas
(1850–1885) invented the Gilchrist-Thomas process, which enabled the use of high phosphorus
acidic Continental ores for steelmaking
. The dolomite lime lining of the converter turned in time into calcium phosphate
, which could be used as fertilizer, known as Thomas-phosphate.
-winning chemists Carl Bosch
of IG Farben
and Fritz Haber
developed the process
that enabled nitrogen to be synthesised cheaply into ammonia
, for subsequent oxidation into nitrates and nitrites.
, also known as the Odda process after his Odda
Smelteverk of Norway
. The process involved acidifying phosphate
rock (from Nauru
and Banaba Island
s in the southern Pacific Ocean) with nitric acid
to produce phosphoric acid
and calcium nitrate
which, once neutralized
, could be used as a nitrogen fertilizer[].
, Thomas Hadfield and the Prentice brothers each founded companies in the early 19th century to create fertilizers from bone meal
.
The developing sciences of chemistry
and Paleontology
, combined with the discovery of coprolites in commercial quantities in East Anglia
, led Fisons and Packard to develop sulfuric acid
and fertilizer plants at Bramford
, and Snape
, Suffolk
in the 1850s to create superphosphates, which were shipped around the world from the port at Ipswich
. By 1871 there were about 80 factories making superphosphate.
After World War I
these businesses came under competitive pressure from naturally-produced guano
, primarily found on the Pacific islands
, as their extraction and distribution had become economically attractive.
The interwar period saw innovative competition from Imperial Chemical Industries
who developed synthetic ammonium sulfate
in 1923, Nitro-chalk in 1927, and a more concentrated and economical fertilizer called CCF
based on ammonium phosphate
in 1931. Competition was limited as ICI ensured it controlled most of the world's ammonium sulfate
supplies.
. By World War II
they had acquired about 40 companies, including Hadfields in 1935, and two years later the large Anglo-Continental Guano Works, founded in 1917.
The post-war environment was characterized by much higher production levels as a result of the "Green Revolution
" and new types of seed with increased nitrogen-absorbing potential, notably the high-response varieties of maize, wheat, and rice. This has accompanied the development of strong national competition, rany baho accusations of cartels and supply monopolies, and ultimately another wave of mergers and acquisitions. The original names no longer exist other than as holding companies or brand names: Fisons and ICI agrochemicals are part of today's Yara International
and AstraZeneca
companies.
Major players in this market now include the Russian Uralkali
fertilizer company Uralkali
(listed on the London Stock Exchange
), whose majority owner is Dmitry Rybolovlev
, ranked by Forbes as 60th in the list of wealthiest people in 2008.
Key figures in Europe
In the 1730s, Viscount Charles TownshendCharles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend
Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend Bt, KG, PC was a British Whig statesman. He served for a decade as Secretary of State, directing British foreign policy...
(1674–1738) first studied the improving effects of the four crop rotation
Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar types of crops in the same area in sequential seasons.Crop rotation confers various benefits to the soil. A traditional element of crop rotation is the replenishment of nitrogen through the use of green manure in sequence with cereals...
system that he had observed in use in Flanders
Flanders
Flanders is the community of the Flemings but also one of the institutions in Belgium, and a geographical region located in parts of present-day Belgium, France and the Netherlands. "Flanders" can also refer to the northern part of Belgium that contains Brussels, Bruges, Ghent and Antwerp...
. For this he gained the nickname of Turnip Townshend.
Justus von Liebig
Chemist Justus von LiebigJustus von Liebig
Justus von Liebig was a German chemist who made major contributions to agricultural and biological chemistry, and worked on the organization of organic chemistry. As a professor, he devised the modern laboratory-oriented teaching method, and for such innovations, he is regarded as one of the...
(1803–1883) contributed greatly to the advancement in the understanding of plant nutrition. His influential works first denounced the vitalist theory of humus, arguing first the importance of ammonia
Ammonia
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula . It is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent odour. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or...
, and later promoting the importance of inorganic minerals to plant nutrition
Plant nutrition
'Plant Nutrition is the study of the chemical elements that are necessary for growth. In 1972, E. Epstein defined 2 criteria for an element to be essential for plant growth:# in its absence the plant is unable to complete a normal life cycle or...
. Primarily Liebig's work succeeded in exposition of questions for agricultural science to address over the next 50 years.
In England, he attempted to implement his theories commercially through a fertilizer created by treating phosphate of lime in bone meal with sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid is a strong mineral acid with the molecular formula . Its historical name is oil of vitriol. Pure sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive, colorless, viscous liquid. The salts of sulfuric acid are called sulfates...
. Although it was much less expensive than the guano
Guano
Guano is the excrement of seabirds, cave dwelling bats, and seals. Guano manure is an effective fertilizer due to its high levels of phosphorus and nitrogen and also its lack of odor. It was an important source of nitrates for gunpowder...
that was used at the time, it failed because it was not able to be properly absorbed by crops.
Sir John Bennet Lawes
At that time in England, Sir John Bennet LawesJohn Bennet Lawes
Sir John Bennet Lawes, 1st Baronet FRS was an English entrepreneur and agricultural scientist. He founded an experimental farm at Rothamsted, where he developed a superphosphate that would mark the beginnings of the chemical fertilizer industry.John Bennet Lawes was born at Rothamsted in...
(1814–1900) was experimenting with crops and manures at his farm at Harpenden
Harpenden
Harpenden is a town in Hertfordshire, England.The town's total population is just under 30,000.-Geography and administration:There are two civil parishes: Harpenden and Harpenden Rural....
and was able to produce a practical superphosphate in 1842 from the phosphates in rock and coprolite
Coprolite
A coprolite is fossilized animal dung. Coprolites are classified as trace fossils as opposed to body fossils, as they give evidence for the animal's behaviour rather than morphology. The name is derived from the Greek words κοπρος / kopros meaning 'dung' and λιθος / lithos meaning 'stone'. They...
s. Encouraged, he employed Sir Joseph Henry Gilbert
Joseph Henry Gilbert
Sir Joseph Henry Gilbert was an English chemist, noteworthy for his long career spent improving the methods of practical agriculture. He was a fellow of the Royal Society.-Life:...
, who had studied under Liebig at the University of Giessen
University of Giessen
The University of Giessen is officially called the Justus Liebig University Giessen after its most famous faculty member, Justus von Liebig, the founder of modern agricultural chemistry and inventor of artificial fertiliser.-History:The University of Gießen is among the oldest institutions of...
, as director of research
Research
Research can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method...
. To this day, the Rothamsted research station the pair founded still investigates the impact of inorganic and organic fertilizers on crop yields.
Jean Baptiste Boussingault
In France, Jean Baptiste BoussingaultJean Baptiste Boussingault
Jean-Baptiste Joseph Dieudonné Boussingault was a French chemist who made significant contributions to agricultural science, petroleum science and metallurgy.-Biography:...
(1802–1887) pointed out that the amount of nitrogen in various kinds of fertilizers is important.
Metallurgists Percy Gilchrist
Percy Gilchrist
Percy Carlyle Gilchrist FRS was a British chemist and metallurgist born in Lyme Regis, Dorset, and who studied at Felsted and the Royal School of Mines...
(1851–1935) and Sidney Gilchrist Thomas
Sidney Gilchrist Thomas
Sidney Gilchrist Thomas was an English inventor.-Life:Thomas was born at Canonbury, London and was educated at Dulwich College....
(1850–1885) invented the Gilchrist-Thomas process, which enabled the use of high phosphorus
Phosphorus
Phosphorus is the chemical element that has the symbol P and atomic number 15. A multivalent nonmetal of the nitrogen group, phosphorus as a mineral is almost always present in its maximally oxidized state, as inorganic phosphate rocks...
acidic Continental ores for steelmaking
Steelmaking
Steelmaking is the second step in producing steel from iron ore. In this stage, impurities such as sulfur, phosphorus, and excess carbon are removed from the raw iron, and alloying elements such as manganese, nickel, chromium and vanadium are added to produce the exact steel required.-Older...
. The dolomite lime lining of the converter turned in time into calcium phosphate
Calcium phosphate
Calcium phosphate is the name given to a family of minerals containing calcium ions together with orthophosphates , metaphosphates or pyrophosphates and occasionally hydrogen or hydroxide ions ....
, which could be used as fertilizer, known as Thomas-phosphate.
Bosch Farben and Haber
In the early decades of the 20th Century, the Nobel prizeNobel Prize
The Nobel Prizes are annual international awards bestowed by Scandinavian committees in recognition of cultural and scientific advances. The will of the Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, established the prizes in 1895...
-winning chemists Carl Bosch
Carl Bosch
Carl Bosch was a German chemist and engineer and Nobel laureate in chemistry. He was a pioneer in the field of high-pressure industrial chemistry and founder of IG Farben, at one point the world's largest chemical company....
of IG Farben
IG Farben
I.G. Farbenindustrie AG was a German chemical industry conglomerate. Its name is taken from Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG . The company was formed in 1925 from a number of major companies that had been working together closely since World War I...
and Fritz Haber
Fritz Haber
Fritz Haber was a German chemist, who received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1918 for his development for synthesizing ammonia, important for fertilizers and explosives. Haber, along with Max Born, proposed the Born–Haber cycle as a method for evaluating the lattice energy of an ionic solid...
developed the process
Haber process
The Haber process, also called the Haber–Bosch process, is the nitrogen fixation reaction of nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas, over an enriched iron or ruthenium catalyst, which is used to industrially produce ammonia....
that enabled nitrogen to be synthesised cheaply into ammonia
Ammonia
Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula . It is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent odour. Ammonia contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to food and fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or...
, for subsequent oxidation into nitrates and nitrites.
Erling Johnson
In 1927 Erling Johnson developed an industrial method for producing nitrophosphateNitrophosphate process
The nitrophosphate process was a method for the industrial production of nitrogen fertilizers invented by Erling Johnson in the city of Odda, Norway around 1927....
, also known as the Odda process after his Odda
Odda
is a municipality and town in the county of Hordaland, Norway. Odda was separated from Ullensvang on 1 July 1913 and on 1 January 1964 Røldal was merged with Odda. The town of Odda is the centre of the landscape of Hardanger, located at the end of the Hardangerfjord.In 1927, Erling Johnson,...
Smelteverk of Norway
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
. The process involved acidifying phosphate
Phosphate
A phosphate, an inorganic chemical, is a salt of phosphoric acid. In organic chemistry, a phosphate, or organophosphate, is an ester of phosphoric acid. Organic phosphates are important in biochemistry and biogeochemistry or ecology. Inorganic phosphates are mined to obtain phosphorus for use in...
rock (from Nauru
Nauru
Nauru , officially the Republic of Nauru and formerly known as Pleasant Island, is an island country in Micronesia in the South Pacific. Its nearest neighbour is Banaba Island in Kiribati, to the east. Nauru is the world's smallest republic, covering just...
and Banaba Island
Banaba Island
Banaba Island , an island in the Pacific Ocean, is a solitary raised coral island west of the Gilbert Island chain and 300 km east of Nauru. It is part of the Republic of Kiribati. It has an area of 6.5 km², and the highest point on the island is also the highest point in Kiribati, at 81...
s in the southern Pacific Ocean) with nitric acid
Nitric acid
Nitric acid , also known as aqua fortis and spirit of nitre, is a highly corrosive and toxic strong acid.Colorless when pure, older samples tend to acquire a yellow cast due to the accumulation of oxides of nitrogen. If the solution contains more than 86% nitric acid, it is referred to as fuming...
to produce phosphoric acid
Phosphoric acid
Phosphoric acid, also known as orthophosphoric acid or phosphoric acid, is a mineral acid having the chemical formula H3PO4. Orthophosphoric acid molecules can combine with themselves to form a variety of compounds which are also referred to as phosphoric acids, but in a more general way...
and calcium nitrate
Calcium nitrate
Calcium nitrate, also called Norgessalpeter , is the inorganic compound with the formula Ca2. This colourless salt absorbs moisture from the air and is commonly found as a tetrahydrate. It is mainly used as a component in fertilizers but is found other applications...
which, once neutralized
PH
In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Pure water is said to be neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at . Solutions with a pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline...
, could be used as a nitrogen fertilizer[].
British
The Englishmen James Fison, Edward PackardEdward Packard (businessman)
Sir Edward Packard was an English businessman. He developed Packard and James Fison Limited into one of the largest fertiliser manufacturing businesses in the United Kingdom.-Early life:...
, Thomas Hadfield and the Prentice brothers each founded companies in the early 19th century to create fertilizers from bone meal
Bone meal
Bone meal is a mixture of crushed and coarsely ground bones that is used as an organic fertilizer for plants and formerly in animal feed. As a slow-release fertilizer, bone meal is primarily used as a source of phosphorus....
.
The developing sciences of chemistry
Chemistry
Chemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....
and Paleontology
Paleontology
Paleontology "old, ancient", ὄν, ὀντ- "being, creature", and λόγος "speech, thought") is the study of prehistoric life. It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms' evolution and interactions with each other and their environments...
, combined with the discovery of coprolites in commercial quantities in East Anglia
East Anglia
East Anglia is a traditional name for a region of eastern England, named after an ancient Anglo-Saxon kingdom, the Kingdom of the East Angles. The Angles took their name from their homeland Angeln, in northern Germany. East Anglia initially consisted of Norfolk and Suffolk, but upon the marriage of...
, led Fisons and Packard to develop sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid is a strong mineral acid with the molecular formula . Its historical name is oil of vitriol. Pure sulfuric acid is a highly corrosive, colorless, viscous liquid. The salts of sulfuric acid are called sulfates...
and fertilizer plants at Bramford
Bramford
Bramford is a medium-sized village, three miles west of Ipswich, Suffolk, in the Mid Suffolk administrative district. Recorded in the Domesday Book as "Brunfort" or "Branfort". The River Gipping , runs at the bottom of the village and was a busy navigable waterway during the 19th century...
, and Snape
Snape, Suffolk
Snape is a small village in the English county of Suffolk, on the River Alde close to Aldeburgh. It has about 600 inhabitants. Snape is now best known for Snape Maltings, no longer in commercial use, but converted into a tourist centre together with a concert hall that hosts the major part of the...
, Suffolk
Suffolk
Suffolk is a non-metropolitan county of historic origin in East Anglia, England. It has borders with Norfolk to the north, Cambridgeshire to the west and Essex to the south. The North Sea lies to the east...
in the 1850s to create superphosphates, which were shipped around the world from the port at Ipswich
Ipswich
Ipswich is a large town and a non-metropolitan district. It is the county town of Suffolk, England. Ipswich is located on the estuary of the River Orwell...
. By 1871 there were about 80 factories making superphosphate.
After World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
these businesses came under competitive pressure from naturally-produced guano
Guano
Guano is the excrement of seabirds, cave dwelling bats, and seals. Guano manure is an effective fertilizer due to its high levels of phosphorus and nitrogen and also its lack of odor. It was an important source of nitrates for gunpowder...
, primarily found on the Pacific islands
Pacific Islands
The Pacific Islands comprise 20,000 to 30,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean. The islands are also sometimes collectively called Oceania, although Oceania is sometimes defined as also including Australasia and the Malay Archipelago....
, as their extraction and distribution had become economically attractive.
The interwar period saw innovative competition from Imperial Chemical Industries
Imperial Chemical Industries
Imperial Chemical Industries was a British chemical company, taken over by AkzoNobel, a Dutch conglomerate, one of the largest chemical producers in the world. In its heyday, ICI was the largest manufacturing company in the British Empire, and commonly regarded as a "bellwether of the British...
who developed synthetic ammonium sulfate
Ammonium sulfate
Ammonium sulfate , 2SO4, is an inorganic salt with a number of commercial uses. The most common use is as a soil fertilizer. It contains 21% nitrogen as ammonium cations, and 24% sulfur as sulfate anions...
in 1923, Nitro-chalk in 1927, and a more concentrated and economical fertilizer called CCF
CCF
CCF can refer to:* 100 cubic feet, an American standard measurement of water or natural gas volume, more often written "Ccf" * Cambodian Children's Fund, charity organisation...
based on ammonium phosphate
Ammonium phosphate
Ammonium phosphate is the salt of ammonia and phosphoric acid. It has the formula 3PO4 and consists of ammonium cations and phosphate anion. It is obtained as a crystalline powder upon mixing concentrated solutions of ammonia and phosphoric acid, or on the addition of excess of ammonia to the...
in 1931. Competition was limited as ICI ensured it controlled most of the world's ammonium sulfate
Ammonium sulfate
Ammonium sulfate , 2SO4, is an inorganic salt with a number of commercial uses. The most common use is as a soil fertilizer. It contains 21% nitrogen as ammonium cations, and 24% sulfur as sulfate anions...
supplies.
North America and other European Countries
Other European and North American fertilizer companies developed their market share, forcing the English pioneer companies to merge, becoming Fisons, Packard, and Prentice Ltd. in 1929. Together they produced 85,000 tons of superphosphate/year in 1934 from their new factory and deep-water docks in IpswichIpswich
Ipswich is a large town and a non-metropolitan district. It is the county town of Suffolk, England. Ipswich is located on the estuary of the River Orwell...
. By World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
they had acquired about 40 companies, including Hadfields in 1935, and two years later the large Anglo-Continental Guano Works, founded in 1917.
The post-war environment was characterized by much higher production levels as a result of the "Green Revolution
Green Revolution
Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, occurring between the 1940s and the late 1970s, that increased agriculture production around the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s....
" and new types of seed with increased nitrogen-absorbing potential, notably the high-response varieties of maize, wheat, and rice. This has accompanied the development of strong national competition, rany baho accusations of cartels and supply monopolies, and ultimately another wave of mergers and acquisitions. The original names no longer exist other than as holding companies or brand names: Fisons and ICI agrochemicals are part of today's Yara International
Yara International
Yara International ASA is a Norwegian-based chemical company. Its largest business area is the production of nitrogen fertilizer, however it also encompasses the production of dry ice, nitrates, ammonia, urea and other nitrogen-based chemicals....
and AstraZeneca
AstraZeneca
AstraZeneca plc is a global pharmaceutical and biologics company headquartered in London, United Kingdom. It is the world's seventh-largest pharmaceutical company measured by revenues and has operations in over 100 countries...
companies.
Major players in this market now include the Russian Uralkali
Uralkali
Uralkali is a Russian potash fertilizer company. It is traded on the London Stock Exchange using the symbol, URKA. and its largest shareholder is billionaire Suleyman Kerimov. The company is based in Perm Krai, Russia....
fertilizer company Uralkali
Uralkali
Uralkali is a Russian potash fertilizer company. It is traded on the London Stock Exchange using the symbol, URKA. and its largest shareholder is billionaire Suleyman Kerimov. The company is based in Perm Krai, Russia....
(listed on the London Stock Exchange
London Stock Exchange
The London Stock Exchange is a stock exchange located in the City of London within the United Kingdom. , the Exchange had a market capitalisation of US$3.7495 trillion, making it the fourth-largest stock exchange in the world by this measurement...
), whose majority owner is Dmitry Rybolovlev
Dmitry Rybolovlev
Dmitry Evgenevich Rybolovlev is a Russian businessman. In 2010 he ranked #79 in Forbe's billionaire's list. In 2011, he was ranked #93.-Career:...
, ranked by Forbes as 60th in the list of wealthiest people in 2008.