Historical Alexander the Great
Encyclopedia
There are numerous surviving ancient Greek and Latin sources on Alexander, as well as some oriental texts. None is contemporary.
Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life include Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes
; Alexander's generals Ptolemy
and Nearchus
; Aristobulus
, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus
, Alexander's chief helmsman.
Finally, there is the very influential account of Cleitarchus
who, while not a direct witness of Alexander's expedition, used sources which had just been published. His work was to be the backbone of that of Timagenes
, who heavily influenced many historians whose work still survives. None of his works survived, but we do have later works based on these primary sources.
In addition to these five main sources some scholars, there is the Metz Epitome
, an anonymous late Latin work that narrates Alexander's campaigns from Hyrcania
to India, and much is also recounted incidentally by other authors, including Strabo
, Athenaeus
, Polyaenus
, Aelian
, and others.
Babylonian Chronicles
Contemporary sources
The primary sources written by people who actually knew Alexander or who gathered information from men who served with Alexander, are all lost, apart from a few inscriptions and fragments.Contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life include Alexander's campaign historian Callisthenes
Callisthenes
Callisthenes of Olynthus was a Greek historian. He was the son of Hero and Proxenus of Atarneus, which made him the great nephew of Aristotle by his sister Arimneste. They first met when Aristotle tutored Alexander the Great...
; Alexander's generals Ptolemy
Ptolemy I Soter
Ptolemy I Soter I , also known as Ptolemy Lagides, c. 367 BC – c. 283 BC, was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great, who became ruler of Egypt and founder of both the Ptolemaic Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Dynasty...
and Nearchus
Nearchus
Nearchus was one of the officers, a navarch, in the army of Alexander the Great. His celebrated voyage from India to Susa after Alexander's expedition in India is preserved in Arrian's account, the Indica....
; Aristobulus
Aristobulus of Cassandreia
For other use, see AristobulusAristobulus of Cassandreia , Greek historian, son of Aristobulus, probably a Phocian settled inCassandreia, accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns...
, a junior officer on the campaigns; and Onesicritus
Onesicritus
Onesicritus , a Greek historical writer, who accompanied Alexander on his campaigns in Asia. He claimed to have been the commander of Alexander's fleet but was actually only a helmsman; Arrian and Nearchus often criticize him for this. When he returned home, he wrote a history of Alexander's...
, Alexander's chief helmsman.
Finally, there is the very influential account of Cleitarchus
Cleitarchus
Cleitarchus or Clitarchus , one of the historians of Alexander the Great, son of the historian Dinon of Colophon, was possibly a native of Egypt, or at least spent a considerable time at the court of Ptolemy Lagus.Quintilian Cleitarchus or Clitarchus , one of the historians of Alexander the Great,...
who, while not a direct witness of Alexander's expedition, used sources which had just been published. His work was to be the backbone of that of Timagenes
Timagenes
Timagenes was a Greek writer, historian and teacher of rhetoric. He came from Alexandria, was captured by Romans in 55 BC and taken to Rome, where he was purchased by Faustus Cornelius Sulla, son of Sulla. It is said that Timagenes had a falling-out with emperor Augustus, whereupon he destroyed...
, who heavily influenced many historians whose work still survives. None of his works survived, but we do have later works based on these primary sources.
The five main sources
The five main surviving accounts are by Arrian, Plutarch, Diodorus, Curtius and Justin.Arrian
- Anabasis AlexandriAnabasis AlexandriAnabasis Alexandri , the Campaigns of Alexander by Arrian, is the most important source on Alexander the Great.The Greek term anabasis referred to an expedition from a coastline into the interior of a country. The term katabasis referred to a trip from the interior to the coast...
(The Campaigns of Alexander in Greek) by the Greek historian ArrianArrianLucius Flavius Arrianus 'Xenophon , known in English as Arrian , and Arrian of Nicomedia, was a Roman historian, public servant, a military commander and a philosopher of the 2nd-century Roman period...
of NicomediaNicomediaNicomedia was an ancient city in what is now Turkey, founded in 712/11 BC as a Megarian colony and was originally known as Astacus . After being destroyed by Lysimachus, it was rebuilt by Nicomedes I of Bithynia in 264 BC under the name of Nicomedia, and has ever since been one of the most...
, writing in the 2nd century AD, and based largely on Ptolemy and, to a lesser extent, Aristobulus and Nearchus. It is generally considered one of the best sources on the campaigns of Alexander as well as one of the founders of a primarily military-based focus on history. Arrian cites his source by name and he often criticizes them. He is not interested in the King's private life, overlooking his errors . That Alexander should have committed errors in conduct from impetuosity or from wrath, and that he should have been induced to comport himself like the Persian monarchs to an immoderate degree, I do not think remarkable if we fairly consider both his youth and his uninterrupted career of good fortune. I do not think that even his tracing his origin to a god was a great error on Alexander's part, if it was not perhaps merely a device to induce his subjects to show him reverence. (Arrian 7b 29) - Indike
Plutarch
- Life of Alexander (see Parallel LivesParallel LivesPlutarch's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans, commonly called Parallel Lives or Plutarch's Lives, is a series of biographies of famous men, arranged in tandem to illuminate their common moral virtues or failings, written in the late 1st century...
) and two orations On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander the Great (see MoraliaMoraliaThe Moralia of the 1st-century Greek scholar Plutarch of Chaeronea is an eclectic collection of 78 essays and transcribed speeches. They give an insight into Roman and Greek life, but often are also fascinating timeless observations in their own right...
), by the Greek historian and biographer PlutarchPlutarchPlutarch then named, on his becoming a Roman citizen, Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus , c. 46 – 120 AD, was a Greek historian, biographer, essayist, and Middle Platonist known primarily for his Parallel Lives and Moralia...
of ChaeroneaChaeroneaChaeronea is a village and a former municipality in Boeotia, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Livadeia, of which it is a municipal unit. Population 2,218...
in the second century, based largely on Aristobulus and especially Cleitarchus. Plutarch devotes a great deal of space to Alexander's drive and desire, and strives to determine how much of it was presaged in his youth. He also draws extensively on the work of Lysippus, Alexander's favourite sculptor, to provide what is probably the fullest and most accurate description of the conqueror's physical appearance.
Diodorus
- Bibliotheca historicaBibliotheca historicaBibliotheca historica , is a work of universal history by Diodorus Siculus. It consisted of forty books, which were divided into three sections. The first six books are geographical in theme, and describe the history and culture of Egypt , of Mesopotamia, India, Scythia, and Arabia , of North...
(Library of world history), written in Greek by the SicilianSicilySicily is a region of Italy, and is the largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Along with the surrounding minor islands, it constitutes an autonomous region of Italy, the Regione Autonoma Siciliana Sicily has a rich and unique culture, especially with regard to the arts, music, literature,...
historian Diodorus SiculusDiodorus SiculusDiodorus Siculus was a Greek historian who flourished between 60 and 30 BC. According to Diodorus' own work, he was born at Agyrium in Sicily . With one exception, antiquity affords no further information about Diodorus' life and doings beyond what is to be found in his own work, Bibliotheca...
, from which Book 17 relates the conquests of Alexander, based almost entirely on Cleitarchus and Hieronymus of Cardia. It is the oldest surviving Greek source (1st century BC). Diodorus regarded Alexander like Caesar as a key historical figure and chronological marker.
Curtius
- Historiae Alexandri Magni, a biography of Alexander in ten books, of which the last eight survive, by the Roman historian Quintus Curtius RufusQuintus Curtius RufusQuintus Curtius Rufus was a Roman historian, writing probably during the reign of the Emperor Claudius or Vespasian. His only surviving work, Historiae Alexandri Magni, is a biography of Alexander the Great in Latin in ten books, of which the first two are lost, and the remaining eight are...
, written in the 1st century AD, and based largely on Cleitarchus through the mediation of Timagenes, with some material probably from Ptolemy. His work is fluidly written, but reveals ignorance of geography, chronology and technical military knowledge, focusing instead on character. According to Jona LenderingJona LenderingJona Lendering is a Dutch historian and the author of books on antiquity, Dutch history and modern management...
: ..the real subject was not Alexander, but the tyranny of TiberiusTiberiusTiberius , was Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla. His mother divorced Nero and married Augustus in 39 BC, making him a step-son of Octavian...
and CaligulaCaligulaCaligula , also known as Gaius, was Roman Emperor from 37 AD to 41 AD. Caligula was a member of the house of rulers conventionally known as the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Caligula's father Germanicus, the nephew and adopted son of Emperor Tiberius, was a very successful general and one of Rome's most...
. (It can be shown that Curtius Rufus' description of the trial of PhilotasPhilotasPhilotas was the eldest son of Parmenion, Alexander's most experienced and talented general. When Alexander became king of Macedonia with Parmenion's support Philotas (in Greek, Φιλώτας, died October 330 BC) was the eldest son of Parmenion, Alexander's most experienced and talented general. When...
is based on an incident during the reign of Tiberius)...Curtius copies Cleitarchus' mistakes, although he is not an uncritical imitator.
Justin
- The Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus by JustinJunianus JustinusJustin was a Latin historian who lived under the Roman Empire. His name is mentioned only in the title of his own history, and there it is in the genitive, which would be M. Juniani Justini no matter which nomen he bore.Of his personal history nothing is known...
, is highly compressed version of an earlier history by Pompeius, with the selections governed by Justin's desire to make moralistic points, rather than with an eye for the history itself.
In addition to these five main sources some scholars, there is the Metz Epitome
Metz Epitome
The Metz Epitome is a late antiquity summary of earlier historical fragments and covers the conquests of Alexander the great between Hyrcania and southern India...
, an anonymous late Latin work that narrates Alexander's campaigns from Hyrcania
Hyrcania
Hyrcania was the name of a satrapy located in the territories of present day Gilan, Golestan, Mazandaran and part of Turkmenistan, lands south of the Caspian Sea. To the Greeks, the Caspian Sea was the "Hyrcanian Sea".-Etymology:...
to India, and much is also recounted incidentally by other authors, including Strabo
Strabo
Strabo, also written Strabon was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher.-Life:Strabo was born to an affluent family from Amaseia in Pontus , a city which he said was situated the approximate equivalent of 75 km from the Black Sea...
, Athenaeus
Athenaeus
Athenaeus , of Naucratis in Egypt, Greek rhetorician and grammarian, flourished about the end of the 2nd and beginning of the 3rd century AD...
, Polyaenus
Polyaenus
Polyaenus or Polyenus vs. e]]; , "many proverbs") was a 2nd century Macedonian author, known best for his Stratagems in War , which has been preserved. The Suda calls him a rhetorician, and Polyaenus himself writes that he was accustomed to plead causes before the emperor...
, Aelian
Claudius Aelianus
Claudius Aelianus , often seen as just Aelian, born at Praeneste, was a Roman author and teacher of rhetoric who flourished under Septimius Severus and probably outlived Elagabalus, who died in 222...
, and others.
Lost works
- Life of Alexander by AesopusAesopus (historian)Aesopus was a Greek historian who wrote a life of Alexander the Great. The original is lost, but there is a Latin translation of it by Julius Valerius, of which Franciscus Juretus had, he says, a manuscript. It was first published, however, by A. Mai from a manuscript in the Biblioteca...
- Works of Anaximenes of LampsacusAnaximenes of LampsacusAnaximenes of Lampsacus was a Greek rhetorician and historian.-Rhetorical works:Anaximenes was a pupil of Zoilus and, like his teacher, wrote a work on Homer. As a rhetorician, he was a determined opponent of Isocrates and his school...
- Works of Aristobulus of CassandreiaAristobulus of CassandreiaFor other use, see AristobulusAristobulus of Cassandreia , Greek historian, son of Aristobulus, probably a Phocian settled inCassandreia, accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns...
- Geographical work of Androsthenes of ThasosAndrosthenes of ThasosFor other uses, see AndrosthenesAndrosthenes son of Callistratus, from Thasos, who had been settled in Amphipolis, was admiral of Alexander the Great. He accompanied as a trierarch the Nearchus' fleet ; of this voyage, Androsthenes also wrote his own account...
- Deeds of Alexander by CallisthenesCallisthenesCallisthenes of Olynthus was a Greek historian. He was the son of Hero and Proxenus of Atarneus, which made him the great nephew of Aristotle by his sister Arimneste. They first met when Aristotle tutored Alexander the Great...
(the official historian) - History of Alexander by CleitarchusCleitarchusCleitarchus or Clitarchus , one of the historians of Alexander the Great, son of the historian Dinon of Colophon, was possibly a native of Egypt, or at least spent a considerable time at the court of Ptolemy Lagus.Quintilian Cleitarchus or Clitarchus , one of the historians of Alexander the Great,...
- On the empire of the Macedonians by Criton of PieriaCriton of PieriaCriton of Pieria , was a 2nd century Greek historian.-Titles of works:*Παλληνικά Pallenica, On Pallene, Chalcidice*Συρακουσῶν κτίσις The foundation of Syracuse...
- Histories (also listed as Macedonica and Hellenica) by Duris of SamosDuris of SamosDuris of Samos ; probably born around 350 BC; died after 281 BC) was a Greek historian and was at some period tyrant of Samos.- Personal and political life :Duris claimed to be a descendant of Alcibiades, and was the brother of Lynceus of Samos...
- Ephemerides (royal journal) of the royal secretary EumenesEumenesEumenes of Cardia was a Thracian general and scholar. He participated in the wars of the Diadochi as a supporter of the Macedonian Argead royal house.-Career:...
- Work of Ephippus of OlynthusEphippus of OlynthusFor other uses, see EphippusEphippus of Olynthus was an Ancient Greek historian of Alexander the Great.It is commonly believed, though no reason is assigned, that Ephippus lived about or shortly after the time of Alexander...
- Work of HagnothemisHagnothemisAccording to Plutarch, Hagnothemis was the authority upon which rested the belief that Antipater poisoned Alexander the Great, after he had heard King Antigonus speak of it...
upon which Plutarch rested the belief that Antipater poisoned Alexander. - Work of Hieronymus of CardiaHieronymus of CardiaHieronymus of Cardia, Greek general and historian from Cardia in Thrace, was a contemporary of Alexander the Great .After the death of Alexander he followed the fortunes of his friend and fellow-countryman Eumenes. He was wounded and taken prisoner by Antigonus, who pardoned him and appointed him...
- On the education of Alexander and Macedonian history by Marsyas of PellaMarsyas of PellaMarsyas of Pella , son of Periander, was aMacedonian historian. According to Suidas, he was a brother of Antigonus I Monophthalmus, who was afterwards king of Asia, by which an uterine brother alone can be meant, as the father of Antigonus was named Philip...
- Work of Medius of LarissaMedius of LarissaMedius , son of Oxythemis, was a native of Larissa in Thessaly and a friend of Alexander the Great. He is mentioned as commanding a trireme during the descent of the Indus river, but with this exception his name does not occur in the military operations of the king...
- Work of NearchusNearchusNearchus was one of the officers, a navarch, in the army of Alexander the Great. His celebrated voyage from India to Susa after Alexander's expedition in India is preserved in Arrian's account, the Indica....
, the primary source of Arrian's IndicaIndica (Arrian)Indica is the name of an ancient book about India written by Arrian, one of the main ancient historians of Alexander the Great. The book mainly tells the story of Alexander's officer Nearchus’ voyage from India to the Persian Gulf after Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Indus Valley... - How Alexander was Educated and geographical works by OnesicritusOnesicritusOnesicritus , a Greek historical writer, who accompanied Alexander on his campaigns in Asia. He claimed to have been the commander of Alexander's fleet but was actually only a helmsman; Arrian and Nearchus often criticize him for this. When he returned home, he wrote a history of Alexander's...
- Work of Ptolemy I SoterPtolemy I SoterPtolemy I Soter I , also known as Ptolemy Lagides, c. 367 BC – c. 283 BC, was a Macedonian general under Alexander the Great, who became ruler of Egypt and founder of both the Ptolemaic Kingdom and the Ptolemaic Dynasty...
- History of Alexander by TimagenesTimagenesTimagenes was a Greek writer, historian and teacher of rhetoric. He came from Alexandria, was captured by Romans in 55 BC and taken to Rome, where he was purchased by Faustus Cornelius Sulla, son of Sulla. It is said that Timagenes had a falling-out with emperor Augustus, whereupon he destroyed...
- Historiae Philippicae by Gnaeus Pompeius TrogusGnaeus Pompeius TrogusGnaeus Pompēius Trōgus, known as Pompeius Trogus, Pompey Trogue, or Trogue Pompey, was a 1st century BC Roman historian of the Celtic tribe of the Vocontii in Gallia Narbonensis, flourished during the age of Augustus, nearly contemporary with Livy.His grandfather served in the war against Sertorius...
Greek epigraphy
- Decree of Philippi (ca.335-330 BC)Decree of Philippi (ca.335-330 BC)A Royal Decree of Alexander the Great, as an arbitration on a land dispute between the city of Philippi and local Thracians , was discovered in a Byzantine basilica at Filippoi and published in 1984...
Alexander arbitrates a boundary dispute between local Thracian tribes and the city of Philippi. - A dedicatory inscription to ApolloApolloApollo is one of the most important and complex of the Olympian deities in Greek and Roman mythology...
was found at Toumbes Kalamotou, ThessalonikiThessaloniki PrefectureThessaloniki is one of the regional units of Greece. It is part of the Region of Central Macedonia. Its capital is the city of Thessaloniki. It is the second most populous regional unit in Greece, behind Central Athens.-Geography:...
; it records a list of priests of AsclepiusAsclepiusAsclepius is the God of Medicine and Healing in ancient Greek religion. Asclepius represents the healing aspect of the medical arts; his daughters are Hygieia , Iaso , Aceso , Aglæa/Ægle , and Panacea...
who had fulfilled their duties from the time when King Alexandros gave KalindoiaKalindoiaKalindoia was an ancient Bottiaean city in Mygdonia .Kalindoia is first reported in the Athenian-Bottiaean alliance of 422 BC and later in the Epidaurian list of Theorodokoi of 360/59 BC. The name of Theodorokos was Pausanias, possibly the same as Pausanias, the pretender to the Macedonian...
and the villages around to MakedonesMacedonMacedonia or Macedon was an ancient kingdom, centered in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, the region of Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south....
.
- A dedicatory inscription to Olympian Zeus by Philonides of Crete in which he is mentioned as King Alexandros' hemerodromos (cursor) and bematistBematistBematists , were specialists in ancient Greece who were trained to measure distances by counting their steps.-Measurements of Alexander's bematists:...
of Asia.
- Lindos ChronicleLindos ChronicleLindos Chronicle is a long inscription from Lindos, Rhodes, dated in 99 BC. It was excavated early in 20th century by a Danish expedition, which found it used as paving block of the Byzantine church of Saint Stephen, near the theatre of Lindos...
. King Alexandros having defeated Darius in battle and become lord kyrios of Asia, sacrificed to AthenaAthenaIn Greek mythology, Athena, Athenê, or Athene , also referred to as Pallas Athena/Athene , is the goddess of wisdom, courage, inspiration, civilization, warfare, strength, strategy, the arts, crafts, justice, and skill. Minerva, Athena's Roman incarnation, embodies similar attributes. Athena is...
of LindosLindosLindos is an archaeological site, a town and a former municipality on the island of Rhodes, in the Dodecanese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Rhodes, of which it is a municipal unit. It lies on the east coast of the island...
. boukephala (ox-heads) and hopla (armour)
- Antigonus (son of Callas)Antigonus (son of Callas)Antigonos of Callas was an ancient Macedonian hetairos from Amphipolis, known through an inscription with a Homeric-style epigram of about 300-275 BC, where he commemorates his win in Hoplitodromos at Heraclean games after the Conquest of Tyrus 332-331 BC. Alexander had dreamt that Heracles...
hetairos from Amphipolis, commemorates his victory in hoplite racingHoplitodromosThe hoplitodromos or hoplitodromia was an ancient foot race, part of the Olympic Games and the other Panhellenic Games...
at Heraclean games after the Conquest of Tyrus.
Babylonian ChroniclesBabylonian ChroniclesThe Babylonian Chronicles are many series of tablets recording major events in Babylonian history. They are thus one of the first steps in the development of ancient historiography...
- Alexander Chronicle mentions the battle of GaugamelaBattle of GaugamelaThe Battle of Gaugamela took place in 331 BC between Alexander the Great and Darius III of Persia. The battle, which is also called the Battle of Arbela, resulted in a massive victory for the ancient Macedonians and led to the fall of the Achaemenid Empire.-Location:Darius chose a flat, open plain...
and the incident of BessusBessusArtaxerxes V, also known as Bessus was a prominent Persian nobleman and satrap of Bactria, and later self-proclaimed king of Persia...
, who was pursued by Aliksandar. - Alexander and Arabia Chronicle refers to events concerning the last years of the King.
Zoroastrian texts
Main article: Book of Arda VirafBook of Arda Viraf
The Book of Arda Viraf is a Zoroastrian religious text of Sassanid era in Middle Persian language,contains about 8,800 words. It describes the dream-journey of a devout Zoroastrian through the next world. Due to the ambiguity inherent to Pahlavi script, 'Viraf' may also be transliterated as...