Grenada Dove
Encyclopedia
The Grenada Dove is a medium-sized New World
tropical dove
. It is endemic
to the island of Grenada
in the Lesser Antilles
. Originally known as the Pea Dove or Well's Dove, it is the National Bird of Grenada. It is considered to be one of the most critically endangered doves in the world (Bird Life International 2000).
for conservation efforts in Grenada.
Some surveys imply that Grenada Doves are associated with dry forest
communities in the west and southwest parts of the main island (Blockstein 1988, Blockstein and Hardy 1989, Bird Life International 2000). True dry forest ecosystems are remnants of a type of xeric scrub habitat that dominated the West Indies at the end of the Pleistocene
, and most areas classified as dry forest in the Caribbean
are mosaics of degraded habitat, and do not represent natural ecosystems (Murphy and Lugo 1986, Vidal and Casado 2000). Beard noted the degraded nature of forested areas in Grenada in 1949.
Results from the Grenada Dry Forest Biodiversity Conservation Project indicate that Grenada Doves are found most often in areas composed primarily of degraded mosaics of evergreen forest. The overall uniting factors in Grenada Dove habitat issues are the degraded nature of the habitat and close proximity to human habitation. This is readily apparent at the Mount Hartman sanctuary, which is an old government cattle farm with vegetation composed primarily of exotic species such as Leucaena leucocephala
and Heamatoxylon. Populations of doves associated with the old golf course
below Jean Anglais, in the Richmond Hill Watershed, are under heavy pressure from development
for private homes, and are well outside the boundaries of the Mount Hartman Sanctuary as are most Grenada Doves. Mount Hartman could be considered prime cattle habitat and has been developed as such until recent times.
Rivera Lugo has suggested that past disturbance may have created new artificial vegetative cover types that are difficult to classify as natural forest communities. Recent classification of land cover types through satellite imagery found that Grenada’s dry forest might be more appropriately considered as ecological complexes, and that there may be correlations between human impacts and vegetative cover. The Rivera Lugo investigations suggest that Grenada Doves are using a mixture of three seasonal forest formations: semi-evergreen forest, deciduous seasonal forest, and thorn woodlands. These categories are based on work by Beard and are applied widely throughout the Caribbean.
Beard considered the thorn woodland seasonal formation to be a highly degraded habitat created by heavy grazing and intensive agricultural practices. Additionally, preliminary surveys and recent census data indicate Grenada Doves occur in both highly fragmented semi-urban areas and more rural environments composed sometimes of highly contrasting levels of housing and economic development. Other members of the genus Leptotila are reported to use a variety of habitats, ranging from areas associated with human disturbance, deciduous woodlands, humid forests, thickets, and semi-arid areas (Goodwin 1993).
Grenada Doves have been documented in south-western Grenada within the Mount Hartman, Clark’s Court Bay, and Richmond Hill watersheds (Blockstein 1988, Blockstein and Hardy 1989). The Mount Hartman watershed has received the greatest amount of scientific investigation and is considered by other researchers to be the representative habitat for the species (Blockstein 1988, Blockstein and Hardy 1989). Part of this watershed has been designated as a national park
and is the only official national park in Grenada. Grenada Doves also have been recorded from western Grenada (Blockstein 1988, Blockstein and Hardy 1989).
The most recent distribution census included individuals from the Beausejour, Perseverance, Woodford, and Black Bay watersheds. Part of the Perseverance watershed, adjacent to the island’s new sanitary landfill and across the street from the old landfill, has been established as a Grenada Dove sanctuary. This area includes a designated travel corridor to link areas of habitat on the north and south sides of the new landfill. The old landfill is currently on fire and has been burning since February 2004. An emergency landfill, which has been established to accommodate the large volume of debris created by Hurricane Ivan
in early September 2004, is encroaching on the Perseverance sanctuary.
.
Only one active Grenada Dove nest has been documented. This nest was active during January and February and was found in a palm
. Juveniles also have been found on the ground and photographed by Grenada’s Forestry and National Parks Department (FNDP) staff; no nest was documented for this encounter. Additionally, there is a record of a Dove flushing from a nest. Bright noted that Leptotila doves in captivity abandoned their nest when disturbed, but by using artificial nesting substrates, he successfully collected eggs and hand-reared young. Bright’s doves produced two buff-coloured eggs per clutch. This is consistent with literature reports from other members of the genus (Goodwin 1983).
The majority of information on the nesting ecology for the genus is associated with Leptotila verrauxi. Studies indicate that L. verrauxi primarily nests on edges and interiors of brushlands and forest dominated by Pithecellobium
ebano and Celtis laevigata
(Boydston and DeYoung 1987, Hayslette et al. 2000), and nests are located in a wide variety of nesting substrates (Hayslette 1996, Hogan 1999).
s (Goodwin 1983), and other members of the genus have been observed eating fruit from the forest floor (Estrada et al. 1984, Coates-Estrada and Estrada 1986), as well as directly from plants (Goodwin 1983).
This dove is classified as critically endangered
by BirdLife International
.
The Grenada Government - in cooperation with the World Bank
- set up two reserve zones in 1996 to preserve the dove: the Perseverance and adjacent Woodford Estates, which are adjacent to a landfill and abandoned quarry site, in the west of the island and a sanctuary of c.150 acre (0.607029 km²) within the Mount Hartman Estate, a former government cattle farm and sugarcane plantation, in the south. Camera surveys of the Mount Hartman area failed to record the presence of Grenada doves there immediately following Hurricane Ivan in 2005 and only eighteen encounters with Grenada doves occurred during April–December 2005. According to some studies, the Mount Hartman Sanctuary was never considered adequate for the dove’s survival and other understudied populations are located along the western coast in the Beausejour and Black Bay watersheds. Some of these populations have been recognised since the 1980s. Further populations may exist but there has never been a complete island-wide survey to verify this.
indicated that one of the primary causes of rarity and extinction for avifauna in the West Indies was habitat destruction by human activities. Jackson and Associates noted many factors that could affect Grenada Dove populations, including land development, livestock grazing, and harvesting of firewood, the underlying cause being lack of land development regulation. Active charcoal pits where discovered adjacent to the Grenada Dove visitior center and charcoal damage was noted in all areas of known Grenada Dove habitat during 2005 surveys.
In addition to habitat destruction, predation may impact Grenada Dove populations. There may have been two separate introductions of exotic species on Grenada. Of these, the Common Opossum
, Didelphis marsupialis, which was originally introduced to Grenada by Amerindians
, is a potential predator of all life stages of the Grenada Dove, and other manicou species (Marmosa
spp.) are potential nest predators. Exotic mammals introduced with European colonisation include Rat
tus species, Indian Mongooses (Hepestes aropunctatus), Mona Monkey
s (Cercopithicus mona) and feral cat
s (Felis silvestris).
Rats were the most abundant predator documented during the Grenada Dry Forest Biodiversity Conservation Project. This same project only documented one feral cat in the Mt. Hartman Watershed.
Hunting may have had an impact on the population in the past, and the Grenada Dove has previously been regulated as a game bird
. Currently, hunting is not considered a major threat.
. The Grenada Government has issued statements stating categorically that any new project within the Mount Hartman Estate will have to respect the dove sanctuaries
and that any project will have to meet the criteria of providing a "win-win
" situation. Four Seasons Hotels have issued a statement asserting that they are not the developer of the project but only a potential operator, if the project should proceed. The Government of Grenada has not made any final decision about the development yet.
BirdLife International and other organisations have questioned whether a "win-win" situation can be achieved. BirdLife International, with other organisations (including the American Bird Conservancy
) and private individuals (including authors Graeme Gibson
and Margaret Atwood
), have campaigned against the proposed development.
There is very little information for this species that has been peer reviewed and very little research has taken place on the species. The most thorough scientific investigation to date is associated with the Grenada Dry Forest Biodiversity Protection Project. Unfortunately most of the documents associated with this project are unavailable to the public and are not currently available through the GEF Website.
New World
The New World is one of the names used for the Western Hemisphere, specifically America and sometimes Oceania . The term originated in the late 15th century, when America had been recently discovered by European explorers, expanding the geographical horizon of the people of the European middle...
tropical dove
Dove
Pigeons and doves constitute the bird family Columbidae within the order Columbiformes, which include some 300 species of near passerines. In general terms "dove" and "pigeon" are used somewhat interchangeably...
. It is endemic
Endemic (ecology)
Endemism is the ecological state of being unique to a defined geographic location, such as an island, nation or other defined zone, or habitat type; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere. For example, all species of lemur are endemic to the...
to the island of Grenada
Grenada
Grenada is an island country and Commonwealth Realm consisting of the island of Grenada and six smaller islands at the southern end of the Grenadines in the southeastern Caribbean Sea...
in the Lesser Antilles
Lesser Antilles
The Lesser Antilles are a long, partly volcanic island arc in the Western Hemisphere. Most of its islands form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean, with the remainder located in the southern Caribbean just north of South America...
. Originally known as the Pea Dove or Well's Dove, it is the National Bird of Grenada. It is considered to be one of the most critically endangered doves in the world (Bird Life International 2000).
Description
The Grenada Dove is characterised by a white throat; face and forehead pale pink shading to dull brown on crown and nape; upperparts olive brown; underwing chestnut; neck and upper breast pink-buff fading to white on lower breast, belly and undertail coverts.Taxonomy
First described in 1884 by Lawrence as a member of the genus Engyptila, it was established as a distinct species using sonographic analysis by Blockstein and Hardy (1988). Now officially known as the Grenada Dove, it was designated as the national bird in 1991 and is one of the flagship speciesFlagship species
The concept of flagship species is a surrogate species concept with its genesis in the field of conservation biology. The flagship species concept holds that by raising the profile of a particular species, it can successfully leverage more support for biodiversity conservation at large in a...
for conservation efforts in Grenada.
Distribution and habitat
The Grenada Dove is a little-known species endemic to the main island of Grenada, West Indies. Historically, it has been recorded from locations throughout Grenada, including offshore islands, and the type specimen was collected from Fontenoy, on the west coast.Some surveys imply that Grenada Doves are associated with dry forest
Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests
The tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forest biome, also known as tropical dry forest, is located at tropical and subtropical latitudes. Though these forests occur in climates that are warm year-round, and may receive several hundred centimeters of rain per year, they have long dry seasons...
communities in the west and southwest parts of the main island (Blockstein 1988, Blockstein and Hardy 1989, Bird Life International 2000). True dry forest ecosystems are remnants of a type of xeric scrub habitat that dominated the West Indies at the end of the Pleistocene
Pleistocene
The Pleistocene is the epoch from 2,588,000 to 11,700 years BP that spans the world's recent period of repeated glaciations. The name pleistocene is derived from the Greek and ....
, and most areas classified as dry forest in the Caribbean
Caribbean
The Caribbean is a crescent-shaped group of islands more than 2,000 miles long separating the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, to the west and south, from the Atlantic Ocean, to the east and north...
are mosaics of degraded habitat, and do not represent natural ecosystems (Murphy and Lugo 1986, Vidal and Casado 2000). Beard noted the degraded nature of forested areas in Grenada in 1949.
Results from the Grenada Dry Forest Biodiversity Conservation Project indicate that Grenada Doves are found most often in areas composed primarily of degraded mosaics of evergreen forest. The overall uniting factors in Grenada Dove habitat issues are the degraded nature of the habitat and close proximity to human habitation. This is readily apparent at the Mount Hartman sanctuary, which is an old government cattle farm with vegetation composed primarily of exotic species such as Leucaena leucocephala
Lead tree
Leucaena leucocephala is a species of small Mimosoid tree that is native to southern Mexico and northern Central America but now naturalized throughout the tropics. Common names include White Leadtree, Jumbay, and White Popinac...
and Heamatoxylon. Populations of doves associated with the old golf course
Golf
Golf is a precision club and ball sport, in which competing players use many types of clubs to hit balls into a series of holes on a golf course using the fewest number of strokes....
below Jean Anglais, in the Richmond Hill Watershed, are under heavy pressure from development
Land development
Land development refers to altering the landscape in any number of ways such as:* changing landforms from a natural or semi-natural state for a purpose such as agriculture or housing...
for private homes, and are well outside the boundaries of the Mount Hartman Sanctuary as are most Grenada Doves. Mount Hartman could be considered prime cattle habitat and has been developed as such until recent times.
Rivera Lugo has suggested that past disturbance may have created new artificial vegetative cover types that are difficult to classify as natural forest communities. Recent classification of land cover types through satellite imagery found that Grenada’s dry forest might be more appropriately considered as ecological complexes, and that there may be correlations between human impacts and vegetative cover. The Rivera Lugo investigations suggest that Grenada Doves are using a mixture of three seasonal forest formations: semi-evergreen forest, deciduous seasonal forest, and thorn woodlands. These categories are based on work by Beard and are applied widely throughout the Caribbean.
Beard considered the thorn woodland seasonal formation to be a highly degraded habitat created by heavy grazing and intensive agricultural practices. Additionally, preliminary surveys and recent census data indicate Grenada Doves occur in both highly fragmented semi-urban areas and more rural environments composed sometimes of highly contrasting levels of housing and economic development. Other members of the genus Leptotila are reported to use a variety of habitats, ranging from areas associated with human disturbance, deciduous woodlands, humid forests, thickets, and semi-arid areas (Goodwin 1993).
Grenada Doves have been documented in south-western Grenada within the Mount Hartman, Clark’s Court Bay, and Richmond Hill watersheds (Blockstein 1988, Blockstein and Hardy 1989). The Mount Hartman watershed has received the greatest amount of scientific investigation and is considered by other researchers to be the representative habitat for the species (Blockstein 1988, Blockstein and Hardy 1989). Part of this watershed has been designated as a national park
National park
A national park is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or owns. Although individual nations designate their own national parks differently A national park is a reserve of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that a sovereign state declares or...
and is the only official national park in Grenada. Grenada Doves also have been recorded from western Grenada (Blockstein 1988, Blockstein and Hardy 1989).
Hurricane Ivan
Hurricane Ivan was a large, long-lived, Cape Verde-type hurricane that caused widespread damage in the Caribbean and United States. The cyclone was the ninth named storm, the sixth hurricane and the fourth major hurricane of the active 2004 Atlantic hurricane season...
in early September 2004, is encroaching on the Perseverance sanctuary.
Breeding
Grenada Doves are assumed to be territorial, and current population estimates are based on this assumption. Grenada Doves in the Mount Hartman area have been observed fighting (Blockstein 1988), and other Leptotila species show varying degrees of territorial behaviour (Goodwin 1983). Herbert Bright maintained captive Leptotila doves in England and documented a breeding pair killing other congeneric doves introduced to the aviary. Bright refers to these birds as Well’s Doves, although his physical descriptions of the birds indicate that they may have been L. verrauxi imported from TobagoTobago
Tobago is the smaller of the two main islands that make up the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. It is located in the southern Caribbean, northeast of the island of Trinidad and southeast of Grenada. The island lies outside the hurricane belt...
.
Only one active Grenada Dove nest has been documented. This nest was active during January and February and was found in a palm
Arecaceae
Arecaceae or Palmae , are a family of flowering plants, the only family in the monocot order Arecales. There are roughly 202 currently known genera with around 2600 species, most of which are restricted to tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate climates...
. Juveniles also have been found on the ground and photographed by Grenada’s Forestry and National Parks Department (FNDP) staff; no nest was documented for this encounter. Additionally, there is a record of a Dove flushing from a nest. Bright noted that Leptotila doves in captivity abandoned their nest when disturbed, but by using artificial nesting substrates, he successfully collected eggs and hand-reared young. Bright’s doves produced two buff-coloured eggs per clutch. This is consistent with literature reports from other members of the genus (Goodwin 1983).
The majority of information on the nesting ecology for the genus is associated with Leptotila verrauxi. Studies indicate that L. verrauxi primarily nests on edges and interiors of brushlands and forest dominated by Pithecellobium
Pithecellobium
Pithecellobium is a genus of flowering plants in the pea family, Fabaceae. The generic name is derived from the Greek words πιθηκος , meaning "ape" or "monkey," and ελλοβιον , meaning "earring," which refers to the coiled shape of the seedpods.Delimitation to the closely related Albizia is a matter...
ebano and Celtis laevigata
Celtis laevigata
Celtis laevigata is a medium-sized tree native to North America. Common names include Sugarberry, Southern Hackberry, or in the southern U.S. Sugar Hackberry or just Hackberry....
(Boydston and DeYoung 1987, Hayslette et al. 2000), and nests are located in a wide variety of nesting substrates (Hayslette 1996, Hogan 1999).
Diet
Grenada dove were documented consuming Carica papaya (Papaya) during diet studies associated with Grenada Dry Forest Ecosystem Protection Project. Observations have been made of Grenada Doves foraging on the ground (Blockstein 1998). Leptotila in captivity have been documented consuming mealworms. Other Leptotila species have been observed eating fruits, seeds, and agricultural grain. L. verrauxi is known to visit bird feederBird feeder
A birdfeeder, bird feeder, bird table, or tray feeder are devices placed outdoors to supply bird food to birds...
s (Goodwin 1983), and other members of the genus have been observed eating fruit from the forest floor (Estrada et al. 1984, Coates-Estrada and Estrada 1986), as well as directly from plants (Goodwin 1983).
Conservation
Very little is known about this species. Population estimates by various researchers indicate that there may be fewer than 100 individuals remaining in the wild (Blockstein 1988), and declines in numbers may have occurred between 1987 and 1991. The last published population estimates were produced by David Blockstein in 1991. Results of point count surveys conducted during research associated with the Grenada Dry Forest Ecosystem Protection Project indicate very low numbers of the dove immediately following Hurricane Ivan. Only five birds were documented calling simultaneously in the Mt. Hartman Watershed during April–June 2005 and only three birds were calling during August–December 2005 in the same areas. During the August–December stime period five birds were documented in the Clarks Court Bay watershed and four were documented in the Beausejeur watershed using point count methods.This dove is classified as critically endangered
Critically endangered
Version 2010.3 of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species identified 3744 Critically Endangered species, subspecies and varieties, stocks and subpopulations.Critically Endangered by kingdom:*1993 Animalia*2 Fungi*1745 Plantae*4 Protista-References:...
by BirdLife International
BirdLife International
BirdLife International is a global Partnership of conservation organisations that strives to conserve birds, their habitats and global biodiversity, working with people towards sustainability in the use of natural resources...
.
The Grenada Government - in cooperation with the World Bank
World Bank
The World Bank is an international financial institution that provides loans to developing countries for capital programmes.The World Bank's official goal is the reduction of poverty...
- set up two reserve zones in 1996 to preserve the dove: the Perseverance and adjacent Woodford Estates, which are adjacent to a landfill and abandoned quarry site, in the west of the island and a sanctuary of c.150 acre (0.607029 km²) within the Mount Hartman Estate, a former government cattle farm and sugarcane plantation, in the south. Camera surveys of the Mount Hartman area failed to record the presence of Grenada doves there immediately following Hurricane Ivan in 2005 and only eighteen encounters with Grenada doves occurred during April–December 2005. According to some studies, the Mount Hartman Sanctuary was never considered adequate for the dove’s survival and other understudied populations are located along the western coast in the Beausejour and Black Bay watersheds. Some of these populations have been recognised since the 1980s. Further populations may exist but there has never been a complete island-wide survey to verify this.
Threats
The primary threat to the Grenada Dove is considered to be habitat fragmentation (Birdlife International 2000). As early as 1947, BondJames Bond (ornithologist)
James Bond was a leading American ornithologist whose name was appropriated by writer Ian Fleming for his fictional spy, James Bond.-Biography:...
indicated that one of the primary causes of rarity and extinction for avifauna in the West Indies was habitat destruction by human activities. Jackson and Associates noted many factors that could affect Grenada Dove populations, including land development, livestock grazing, and harvesting of firewood, the underlying cause being lack of land development regulation. Active charcoal pits where discovered adjacent to the Grenada Dove visitior center and charcoal damage was noted in all areas of known Grenada Dove habitat during 2005 surveys.
In addition to habitat destruction, predation may impact Grenada Dove populations. There may have been two separate introductions of exotic species on Grenada. Of these, the Common Opossum
Common Opossum
The common opossum , also called the southern or black-eared opossum, is a mammal species living from the northeast of Mexico to Bolivia, including the Lesser Antilles, where it is called manicou. It prefers the woods, but can also live in fields and cities...
, Didelphis marsupialis, which was originally introduced to Grenada by Amerindians
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants and other ethnic groups who are identified with those peoples. Indigenous peoples are known in Canada as Aboriginal peoples, and in the United States as Native Americans...
, is a potential predator of all life stages of the Grenada Dove, and other manicou species (Marmosa
Marmosa
The nine species in the genus Marmosa are relatively small Neotropic members of the order Didelphimorphia. This genus is one of four that are known as mouse opossums. The others are Micoureus , Thylamys and Tlacuatzin, the grayish mouse opossum...
spp.) are potential nest predators. Exotic mammals introduced with European colonisation include Rat
Rat
Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents of the superfamily Muroidea. "True rats" are members of the genus Rattus, the most important of which to humans are the black rat, Rattus rattus, and the brown rat, Rattus norvegicus...
tus species, Indian Mongooses (Hepestes aropunctatus), Mona Monkey
Mona Monkey
The mona monkey is an Old World monkey that lives throughout western Africa. The mona monkey can also be found on the island of Grenada as it was transported to the island aboard slave ships headed to the New World during the 18th century. This guenon lives in groups of up to 35 in arboreal regions...
s (Cercopithicus mona) and feral cat
Feral cat
A feral cat is a descendant of a domesticated cat that has returned to the wild. It is distinguished from a stray cat, which is a pet cat that has been lost or abandoned, while feral cats are born in the wild; the offspring of a stray cat can be considered feral if born in the wild.In many parts of...
s (Felis silvestris).
Rats were the most abundant predator documented during the Grenada Dry Forest Biodiversity Conservation Project. This same project only documented one feral cat in the Mt. Hartman Watershed.
Hunting may have had an impact on the population in the past, and the Grenada Dove has previously been regulated as a game bird
Game (food)
Game is any animal hunted for food or not normally domesticated. Game animals are also hunted for sport.The type and range of animals hunted for food varies in different parts of the world. This will be influenced by climate, animal diversity, local taste and locally accepted view about what can or...
. Currently, hunting is not considered a major threat.
Current issues
In late 2006, information was released stating that the Government intends to sell a portion of Mount Hartman Estate to a private promoter for the development as a tourist resort under the probable management of Four Seasons HotelsFour Seasons Hotels
Four Seasons Hotels, Inc. is a Canadian-based international ultra-luxury, five-star hotel management company. Travel + Leisure magazine and Zagat Survey rank the hotel chain's 84 properties among the top luxury hotels worldwide...
. The Grenada Government has issued statements stating categorically that any new project within the Mount Hartman Estate will have to respect the dove sanctuaries
Nature reserve
A nature reserve is a protected area of importance for wildlife, flora, fauna or features of geological or other special interest, which is reserved and managed for conservation and to provide special opportunities for study or research...
and that any project will have to meet the criteria of providing a "win-win
Win-win game
A win-win game is a game which is designed in a way that all participants can profit from it in one way or the other. In conflict resolution, a win-win strategy is a conflict resolution process that aims to accommodate all disputants.-Types:...
" situation. Four Seasons Hotels have issued a statement asserting that they are not the developer of the project but only a potential operator, if the project should proceed. The Government of Grenada has not made any final decision about the development yet.
BirdLife International and other organisations have questioned whether a "win-win" situation can be achieved. BirdLife International, with other organisations (including the American Bird Conservancy
American Bird Conservancy
American Bird Conservancy is a non-profit membership organization with the mission of conserving native birds and their habitats throughout the Americas...
) and private individuals (including authors Graeme Gibson
Graeme Gibson
Graeme C. Gibson, CM is a Canadian novelist who lives in Toronto, Ontario. He is a Member of the Order of Canada , and was one of the organizers of the Writer's Union of Canada . He has a long term relationship with the novelist and poet Margaret Atwood.In 1996 he decided to stop writing novels...
and Margaret Atwood
Margaret Atwood
Margaret Eleanor Atwood, is a Canadian poet, novelist, literary critic, essayist, and environmental activist. She is among the most-honoured authors of fiction in recent history; she is a winner of the Arthur C...
), have campaigned against the proposed development.
There is very little information for this species that has been peer reviewed and very little research has taken place on the species. The most thorough scientific investigation to date is associated with the Grenada Dry Forest Biodiversity Protection Project. Unfortunately most of the documents associated with this project are unavailable to the public and are not currently available through the GEF Website.
Further reading
- Smith, G. (1824). Reference to the plan of the island of Grenada. Government of Grenada, St Georges, Grenada