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Great Fire of New York (1776)
Encyclopedia
The Great Fire of New York was a devastating fire that burned through the night of September 21, 1776 on the west side of what then constituted New York City
at the southern end
of the island of Manhattan
. It broke out in the early days of the military occupation
of the city by British
forces during the American Revolutionary War
.
The fire destroyed 10 to 25 percent of the city, and some unburned parts of the city were plundered. Many people believed or assumed that one or more people deliberately started the fire, for a variety of different reasons. British leaders accused rebels acting within the city, and many residents assumed that one side or the other had started it. The fire had long-term effects on the British occupation of the city, which did not end until the British left the city
in 1783.
broke out in April 1775, the city of New York
was already an important center of business, but had not yet become a sprawling metropolis. It occupied only the lower portion
of the island of Manhattan
, and had a population of about 25,000. Before the war began, the Province of New York
was politically divided, with active Patriot
organizations, but also a colonial assembly that was strongly Loyalist
. After Lexington and Concord
, Patriots seized control of the city, and began arresting and expelling Loyalists.
Early in the summer of 1776, when the war was still in its early stages, British General William Howe
embarked on a campaign to gain control of the city and its militarily important harbor. After occupying Staten Island
in July, he launched a successful attack on Long Island
in late August, assisted by naval forces under the command of his brother, Admiral Lord Richard Howe
. American General George Washington
recognized the inevitability of the capture of New York City, and withdrew
the bulk of his army about 10 miles (16.1 km) north to Harlem Heights
. Several people, including General Nathanael Greene
and New York's John Jay
advocated burning the city down to deny its benefits to the British. Washington laid the question before the Second Continental Congress
, which rejected the idea: "it should in no event be damaged".
On September 15, 1776, British forces under General Howe landed on Manhattan
. The next morning, some British troops marched toward Harlem, where the two armies clashed again
, while others marched into the city.
A civilian exodus from the city had begun well before the British fleet arrived in the harbor. The arrival the previous February of the first Continental Army
troops in the city had prompted some people to pack up and leave, including Loyalists who were specifically targeted by the army and Patriots. The capture of Long Island had only accelerated the abandonment of the city. During the Continental Army's presence in the city, many abandoned properties were appropriated for the army's use. When the British arrived in the city, the tables were turned, and the properties of Patriots were confiscated for the British army's use. Despite this, housing and other demands of the military occupation significantly strained the city's available building stock.
, an American prisoner aboard the HMS Pearl, it began in the Fighting Cocks Tavern, near Whitehall Slip. Abetted by dry weather and strong winds, the flames spread north and west, moving rapidly among tightly packed homes and businesses. Residents poured into the streets, clutching what possessions they could, and found refuge on the grassy town commons (today, City Hall Park). The fire crossed Broadway near Beaver Street, and then burned most of the city between Broadway and the Hudson River
. It raged into the daylight hours, and was stopped as much by changes in the wind as by the actions of some of the citizenry and British marines sent, according to Henry, "in aid of the inhabitants." It may also have been stopped by the relatively undeveloped property of King's College, located at the northern end of the fire-damaged area. The total number of buildings destroyed is not known with precision; estimates range from 400 to 1,000, between 10 and 25 percent of the 4,000 city buildings. Among the buildings destroyed was Trinity Church
; St. Paul's Chapel survived.
suspected that Washington was responsible, writing that "[m]any circumstances lead to conjecture that Mr. Washington was privy to this villainous act" and that "some officers of his army were found concealed in the city". Many Americans also assumed that the fire was the work of Patriot arsonists. John Joseph Henry recorded accounts of marines returning to the Pearl after fighting the fire in which men were "caught in the act of firing the houses." Some Americans accused the British of setting the fire so that the city might be plundered. A Hessian major noted that some who fought the blaze managed to "pay themselves well by plundering other houses near by that were not on fire."
George Washington wrote to John Hancock
on September 22, specifically denying knowledge of the fire's cause. In a letter to his cousin Lund, Washington wrote, "Providence—or some good honest Fellow, has done more for us than we were disposed to do for ourselves".
According to historian Barnet Schecter, no accusation of arson has withstood scrutiny. The strongest circumstantial evidence in favor of arson theories is the fact that the fire appeared to start in multiple places. However, contemporary accounts explain that burning flakes from wooden roof shingles spread the fire. One diarist wrote, "the flames were communicated to several houses" by these flakes "carried by the wind to some distance". The British interrogated more than 200 suspects, but no charges were ever made. Coincidentally, Nathan Hale
, an American captain engaged in spying for Washington, was arrested in Queens
the day the fire started. Rumors attempting to link him to the fires have never been substantiated; there is nothing indicating he was arrested (and eventually hanged) for anything other than espionage
.
confiscated surviving uninhabited homes of known Patriots
and assigned them to British officers. Churches, other than the state churches
(Church of England
) were converted into prisons, infirmaries, or barracks. Some of the common soldiers were billet
ed with civilian families. There was a great influx of Loyalist
s refugees into the city resulting in further overcrowding, and many of these returning Loyalists encamped in squalid tent cities on the charred ruins. The fire convinced the British to put the city under martial law rather than returning it to civilian authorities. Crime and poor sanitation were persistent problems during the British occupation, which did not end until the city was evacuated
in November 1783.
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
at the southern end
Lower Manhattan
Lower Manhattan is the southernmost part of the island of Manhattan, the main island and center of business and government of the City of New York...
of the island of Manhattan
Manhattan
Manhattan is the oldest and the most densely populated of the five boroughs of New York City. Located primarily on the island of Manhattan at the mouth of the Hudson River, the boundaries of the borough are identical to those of New York County, an original county of the state of New York...
. It broke out in the early days of the military occupation
Military occupation
Military occupation occurs when the control and authority over a territory passes to a hostile army. The territory then becomes occupied territory.-Military occupation and the laws of war:...
of the city by British
Kingdom of Great Britain
The former Kingdom of Great Britain, sometimes described as the 'United Kingdom of Great Britain', That the Two Kingdoms of Scotland and England, shall upon the 1st May next ensuing the date hereof, and forever after, be United into One Kingdom by the Name of GREAT BRITAIN. was a sovereign...
forces during the American Revolutionary War
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War , the American War of Independence, or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers.The war was the result of the...
.
The fire destroyed 10 to 25 percent of the city, and some unburned parts of the city were plundered. Many people believed or assumed that one or more people deliberately started the fire, for a variety of different reasons. British leaders accused rebels acting within the city, and many residents assumed that one side or the other had started it. The fire had long-term effects on the British occupation of the city, which did not end until the British left the city
Evacuation Day (New York)
Following the American Revolution, Evacuation Day on November 25 marks the day in 1783 when the last vestige of British authority in the United States — its troops in New York — departed from Manhattan...
in 1783.
Background
When the American Revolutionary WarAmerican Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War , the American War of Independence, or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers.The war was the result of the...
broke out in April 1775, the city of New York
New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. New York exerts a significant impact upon global commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and...
was already an important center of business, but had not yet become a sprawling metropolis. It occupied only the lower portion
Lower Manhattan
Lower Manhattan is the southernmost part of the island of Manhattan, the main island and center of business and government of the City of New York...
of the island of Manhattan
Manhattan
Manhattan is the oldest and the most densely populated of the five boroughs of New York City. Located primarily on the island of Manhattan at the mouth of the Hudson River, the boundaries of the borough are identical to those of New York County, an original county of the state of New York...
, and had a population of about 25,000. Before the war began, the Province of New York
Province of New York
The Province of New York was an English and later British crown territory that originally included all of the present U.S. states of New York, New Jersey, Delaware and Vermont, along with inland portions of Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Maine, as well as eastern Pennsylvania...
was politically divided, with active Patriot
Patriot (American Revolution)
Patriots is a name often used to describe the colonists of the British Thirteen United Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution. It was their leading figures who, in July 1776, declared the United States of America an independent nation...
organizations, but also a colonial assembly that was strongly Loyalist
Loyalist (American Revolution)
Loyalists were American colonists who remained loyal to the Kingdom of Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War. At the time they were often called Tories, Royalists, or King's Men. They were opposed by the Patriots, those who supported the revolution...
. After Lexington and Concord
Battles of Lexington and Concord
The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War. They were fought on April 19, 1775, in Middlesex County, Province of Massachusetts Bay, within the towns of Lexington, Concord, Lincoln, Menotomy , and Cambridge, near Boston...
, Patriots seized control of the city, and began arresting and expelling Loyalists.
Early in the summer of 1776, when the war was still in its early stages, British General William Howe
William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe
William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe, KB, PC was a British army officer who rose to become Commander-in-Chief of British forces during the American War of Independence...
embarked on a campaign to gain control of the city and its militarily important harbor. After occupying Staten Island
Staten Island
Staten Island is a borough of New York City, New York, United States, located in the southwest part of the city. Staten Island is separated from New Jersey by the Arthur Kill and the Kill Van Kull, and from the rest of New York by New York Bay...
in July, he launched a successful attack on Long Island
Battle of Long Island
The Battle of Long Island, also known as the Battle of Brooklyn or the Battle of Brooklyn Heights, fought on August 27, 1776, was the first major battle in the American Revolutionary War following the United States Declaration of Independence, the largest battle of the entire conflict, and the...
in late August, assisted by naval forces under the command of his brother, Admiral Lord Richard Howe
Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe
Admiral of the Fleet Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe KG was a British naval officer, notable in particular for his service during the American War of Independence and French Revolutionary Wars. He was the brother of William Howe and George Howe.Howe joined the navy at the age of thirteen and served...
. American General George Washington
George Washington
George Washington was the dominant military and political leader of the new United States of America from 1775 to 1799. He led the American victory over Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army from 1775 to 1783, and presided over the writing of...
recognized the inevitability of the capture of New York City, and withdrew
Withdrawal (military)
A withdrawal is a type of military operation, generally meaning retreating forces back while maintaining contact with the enemy. A withdrawal may be undertaken as part of a general retreat, to consolidate forces, to occupy ground that is more easily defended, or to lead the enemy into an ambush...
the bulk of his army about 10 miles (16.1 km) north to Harlem Heights
Morningside Heights, Manhattan
Morningside Heights is a neighborhood of the Borough of Manhattan in New York City and is chiefly known as the home of institutions such as Columbia University, Teachers College, Barnard College, the Manhattan School of Music, Bank Street College of Education, the Cathedral of Saint John the...
. Several people, including General Nathanael Greene
Nathanael Greene
Nathanael Greene was a major general of the Continental Army in the American Revolutionary War. When the war began, Greene was a militia private, the lowest rank possible; he emerged from the war with a reputation as George Washington's most gifted and dependable officer. Many places in the United...
and New York's John Jay
John Jay
John Jay was an American politician, statesman, revolutionary, diplomat, a Founding Father of the United States, and the first Chief Justice of the United States ....
advocated burning the city down to deny its benefits to the British. Washington laid the question before the Second Continental Congress
Second Continental Congress
The Second Continental Congress was a convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that started meeting on May 10, 1775, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, soon after warfare in the American Revolutionary War had begun. It succeeded the First Continental Congress, which met briefly during 1774,...
, which rejected the idea: "it should in no event be damaged".
On September 15, 1776, British forces under General Howe landed on Manhattan
Landing at Kip's Bay
The Landing at Kip's Bay was a British amphibious landing during the New York Campaign in the American Revolutionary War on September 15, 1776, occurring on the eastern shore of present-day Manhattan....
. The next morning, some British troops marched toward Harlem, where the two armies clashed again
Battle of Harlem Heights
The Battle of Harlem Heights was fought during the New York and New Jersey campaign of the American Revolutionary War. The action took place in what is now the Morningside Heights and west Harlem neighborhoods of Manhattan in New York City on September 16, 1776....
, while others marched into the city.
A civilian exodus from the city had begun well before the British fleet arrived in the harbor. The arrival the previous February of the first Continental Army
Continental Army
The Continental Army was formed after the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War by the colonies that became the United States of America. Established by a resolution of the Continental Congress on June 14, 1775, it was created to coordinate the military efforts of the Thirteen Colonies in...
troops in the city had prompted some people to pack up and leave, including Loyalists who were specifically targeted by the army and Patriots. The capture of Long Island had only accelerated the abandonment of the city. During the Continental Army's presence in the city, many abandoned properties were appropriated for the army's use. When the British arrived in the city, the tables were turned, and the properties of Patriots were confiscated for the British army's use. Despite this, housing and other demands of the military occupation significantly strained the city's available building stock.
Fire
In the early hours of September 21, fire broke out in the city. According to the eyewitness account of John Joseph HenryJohn Joseph Henry
John Joseph Henry was a private soldier from Pennsylvania in the American Revolutionary War.Henry, the son of William Henry of Lancaster and Ann Wood Henry, was born in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. His father, an important gunsmith, apprenticed him at age 14 to an uncle, also a gunsmith, who moved...
, an American prisoner aboard the HMS Pearl, it began in the Fighting Cocks Tavern, near Whitehall Slip. Abetted by dry weather and strong winds, the flames spread north and west, moving rapidly among tightly packed homes and businesses. Residents poured into the streets, clutching what possessions they could, and found refuge on the grassy town commons (today, City Hall Park). The fire crossed Broadway near Beaver Street, and then burned most of the city between Broadway and the Hudson River
Hudson River
The Hudson is a river that flows from north to south through eastern New York. The highest official source is at Lake Tear of the Clouds, on the slopes of Mount Marcy in the Adirondack Mountains. The river itself officially begins in Henderson Lake in Newcomb, New York...
. It raged into the daylight hours, and was stopped as much by changes in the wind as by the actions of some of the citizenry and British marines sent, according to Henry, "in aid of the inhabitants." It may also have been stopped by the relatively undeveloped property of King's College, located at the northern end of the fire-damaged area. The total number of buildings destroyed is not known with precision; estimates range from 400 to 1,000, between 10 and 25 percent of the 4,000 city buildings. Among the buildings destroyed was Trinity Church
Trinity Church, New York
Trinity Church at 79 Broadway, Lower Manhattan, is a historic, active parish church in the Episcopal Diocese of New York...
; St. Paul's Chapel survived.
Was it arson?
General Howe's report to London implied that the fire was deliberately set: "a most horrid attempt was made by a number of wretches to burn the town". Royal Governor William TryonWilliam Tryon
William Tryon was a British soldier and colonial administrator who served as governor of the Province of North Carolina and the Province of New York .-Early life and career:...
suspected that Washington was responsible, writing that "[m]any circumstances lead to conjecture that Mr. Washington was privy to this villainous act" and that "some officers of his army were found concealed in the city". Many Americans also assumed that the fire was the work of Patriot arsonists. John Joseph Henry recorded accounts of marines returning to the Pearl after fighting the fire in which men were "caught in the act of firing the houses." Some Americans accused the British of setting the fire so that the city might be plundered. A Hessian major noted that some who fought the blaze managed to "pay themselves well by plundering other houses near by that were not on fire."
George Washington wrote to John Hancock
John Hancock
John Hancock was a merchant, statesman, and prominent Patriot of the American Revolution. He served as president of the Second Continental Congress and was the first and third Governor of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts...
on September 22, specifically denying knowledge of the fire's cause. In a letter to his cousin Lund, Washington wrote, "Providence—or some good honest Fellow, has done more for us than we were disposed to do for ourselves".
According to historian Barnet Schecter, no accusation of arson has withstood scrutiny. The strongest circumstantial evidence in favor of arson theories is the fact that the fire appeared to start in multiple places. However, contemporary accounts explain that burning flakes from wooden roof shingles spread the fire. One diarist wrote, "the flames were communicated to several houses" by these flakes "carried by the wind to some distance". The British interrogated more than 200 suspects, but no charges were ever made. Coincidentally, Nathan Hale
Nathan Hale
Nathan Hale was a soldier for the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He volunteered for an intelligence-gathering mission in New York City but was captured by the British...
, an American captain engaged in spying for Washington, was arrested in Queens
Queens
Queens is the easternmost of the five boroughs of New York City. The largest borough in area and the second-largest in population, it is coextensive with Queens County, an administrative division of New York state, in the United States....
the day the fire started. Rumors attempting to link him to the fires have never been substantiated; there is nothing indicating he was arrested (and eventually hanged) for anything other than espionage
Espionage
Espionage or spying involves an individual obtaining information that is considered secret or confidential without the permission of the holder of the information. Espionage is inherently clandestine, lest the legitimate holder of the information change plans or take other countermeasures once it...
.
Effect on British occupation
Major General James RobertsonJames Robertson (loyalist)
General James Robertson was the civil governor of the Province of New York from 1779 to 1783.-Life:He was born in Newbigging, Fife, Scotland in 1717. He came to the American colonies in 1756 as a Major of the royal American troops...
confiscated surviving uninhabited homes of known Patriots
Patriot (American Revolution)
Patriots is a name often used to describe the colonists of the British Thirteen United Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution. It was their leading figures who, in July 1776, declared the United States of America an independent nation...
and assigned them to British officers. Churches, other than the state churches
State church
State churches are organizational bodies within a Christian denomination which are given official status or operated by a state.State churches are not necessarily national churches in the ethnic sense of the term, but the two concepts may overlap in the case of a nation state where the state...
(Church of England
Church of England
The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England and the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican Communion. The church considers itself within the tradition of Western Christianity and dates its formal establishment principally to the mission to England by St...
) were converted into prisons, infirmaries, or barracks. Some of the common soldiers were billet
Billet
A billet is a term for living quarters to which a soldier is assigned to sleep. Historically, it referred to a private dwelling that was required to accept the soldier....
ed with civilian families. There was a great influx of Loyalist
Loyalist (American Revolution)
Loyalists were American colonists who remained loyal to the Kingdom of Great Britain during the American Revolutionary War. At the time they were often called Tories, Royalists, or King's Men. They were opposed by the Patriots, those who supported the revolution...
s refugees into the city resulting in further overcrowding, and many of these returning Loyalists encamped in squalid tent cities on the charred ruins. The fire convinced the British to put the city under martial law rather than returning it to civilian authorities. Crime and poor sanitation were persistent problems during the British occupation, which did not end until the city was evacuated
Evacuation Day (New York)
Following the American Revolution, Evacuation Day on November 25 marks the day in 1783 when the last vestige of British authority in the United States — its troops in New York — departed from Manhattan...
in November 1783.