Gando Convention
Encyclopedia
The 1909 Gando Convention (Hangul
: 간도협약, Hanja
: 間島協約) was a treaty
signed between Imperial Japan
and Qing China
in which Japan recognized China's claims to Jiandao, called Gando in Korean. Japan received railroad concessions in Northeast China
("Manchuria"). The treaty is disputed by some Koreans who maintain an irredentist claim on Gando.
, its successor Goguryeo
, and the subsequent Balhae
, followed later by the Jurchen Jin Dynasty and the Khitans.
Traditionally, the area was inhabited by nomadic tribes from the north and west, as well as Koreans
and Chinese
fleeing unrest, famine, or other sociopolitical conditions in their home countries. Eventually it, and much of the rest of Manchuria with it, came under the control of the Manchu
and later the Qing Dynasty
. Gando itself, as it shared a border with Korea
, was a particularly high-frequency destination for Koreans fleeing worsening conditions in the late Joseon Dynasty
after the early 1800s. By the middle and late 1800s, Koreans formed a majority of the population living in Gando, and when the Qing opened up Manchuria to Han Chinese migration in the 1870s and Gando in 1881, a large number of Koreans were already living there and this raised a boundary dispute issue that had been negotiated in 1712 but, due to an ambiguity in the characters used, was subject to some speculation which was deftly used by the Koreans living in Gando to claim that they were still on Korean soil. While punishments for cross-border movement into northeast China by Han Chinese
and Koreans by their respective governments (the Qing and Joseon
) were on the books and Koreans apprehended in Gando were repatriated to Korea by Qing authorities, it is evident that these regulations did not deter people fleeing poor conditions, and they were able to make this claim in an attempt to escape relocation and punishment. The ambiguity in the original 1712 treaty gradually became official Joseon
policy, but the issue itself did not come to a head until this time, when the Joseon Dynasty itself was in much turmoil and in no position to re-negotiate the boundary.
By the early 20th century, with increasing Japanese
intervention in Korea
, more Koreans fled to Gando, where they were sometimes welcomed by local Qing authorities as a source of labor and agricultural skill. Additionally, as a result of this consolidation of Japanese control over Korea (which would culminate with the Japan-Korea treaty of 1910, with which Japan annexed Korea and began the Japanese occupation of Korea that ended in 1945), Korea was not able to re-negotiate the renewed boundary issues with the Qing, which was having problems of its own due to Western imperialism
and pressures from Japan.
By 1905, the Korean Empire
was effectively a Japanese
protectorate (see Eulsa Treaty
). As a result of the Russo-Japanese War
which ended in the same year, Korea was fully surrounded and occupied by Japanese troops
. The negotiations to end the Russo-Japanese War resulted in the Portsmouth Treaty, which stated that "Japan possesses in Korea paramount political, military, and economical [sic] interests" and with the Russian concessions to Japan effectively ensured a Japanese sphere of influence in northeast Asia.
In 1907, Japanese forces infiltrated the rather porous border between Korea and China, but a few months after this infiltration, the Japanese called the border issue "unsettled" because the majority of the population there was still ethnically Korean; as effective overlords of Korea, they claimed that Japan's jurisdiction over Korean subjects should extend into Gando, and invaded Gando in force in August 1907, which resulted in the Qing
administration of China issuing a 13-point refutation asserting its claim to Jiandao.
China and the large population of ethnic Koreans in Gando was no secret to anyone in Northeast Asia
, it is likely that the Japanese proposed the Gando Convention as a potential threat to continue pressing to claim Gando for Korea as a part of the Japanese Empire if the concessions by China to Japan listed in the Convention were not granted.
Treaties and agreements, while often lopsided in that era (see unequal treaties
), often did at least nominally include concessions for all parties signing such agreements. In the Convention, Japan agreed to recognize Gando as Chinese territory and to withdraw its forces from there back into Korea within two months of the date of the agreement. In return, China conceded exclusive railroad rights in Manchuria to Japan, among other things. The convention also contained provisions for the protection and rights of ethnic Koreans under Chinese rule.
(which ruled China at the time) and the Joseon Dynasty
(which ruled Korea at the time); this actually did not become an issue again until about 150 years after the agreement was approved by both parties, when Manchuria and Gando was opened to Han Chinese
migration by the Qing. The other major part of the claim relies on the fact that by the time the Gando Convention was signed in 1909, the Korean state (by that time the Korean Empire
) was neither consulted nor had any way of disputing the legitimacy of the treaty as it was already a protectorate of the Japanese Empire and was essentially prevented from resolving or re-negotiating the boundary dispute as an independent state, and as such the Gando Convention, like other unequal treaties (such as the Eulsa Treaty
and the Japan-Korea treaty of 1910) dealing with Korean territory/governance or claims made by Imperial Japan, should be revoked and the boundary dispute rectified between Korea (though there is no stated consensus on which of the two current Koreas should be party to this) and the People's Republic of China
(though the Republic of China
, as the nationalist successor to the Qing Dynasty, may be a more legitimate party to this on the Chinese side as it still claims all of the territory held while the Qing Dynasty still ruled China as a sovereign state).
and the geopolitical situation it created, no serious Korean claim to Gando was made by either North
or South
Korea. In 1963, North Korea signed a boundary treaty with the People's Republic of China
, which settled the boundary between the two at the Yalu/Amnok (Chinese/Korean names) and Tumen
Rivers; this agreement primarily stipulated that three-fifths of Heaven Lake at the peak of Mt. Baekdu would go to North Korea, and two-fifths to China.
However, the boundary between North Korea and the People's Republic of China is still contested, in spite of the 1963 agreement. In response to North Korea's perceived lack of support in the Sino-Soviet split
, China demanded that North Korea cede its portion of the peak of Mt. Baekdu to China, and between March 1968 and March 1969, a number of border clashes between North Korean forces
and Chinese forces took place in the Mt. Baekdu region. Chinese demands for the rest of Mt. Baekdu were eventually dropped in 1970 in order to repair relations between North Korea and China. China has recognized North Korea's sovereignty over some 80% of the islands in the Yalu/Amnok and Tumen
Rivers, and also accepted North Korea's control of some 90% of the mouth of the Yalu/Amnok River. While not openly discussed anymore, it would appear that the 1963 agreement is only something of a framework and not exactly a binding contract for either North Korea or China.
South Korea later recognized these agreements as delineating the Korean-Chinese boundary as well. Today, none of the governments involved (North Korea, South Korea, Japan, or China) officially support the claim that Gando is Korean territory or should be reinstated to either Korean state.
For years, the South Korean government avoided making any official statement regarding the Gando Convention. However, in 2004, the South Korea
n government issued the following statement: "Our government takes the position that the 1909 Gando Convention, signed by Japan illegally without Korea's consent, is null and void, to the extent that the Eulsa Treaty
, which deprived Korea of its diplomatic rights in 1905, is a null-and-void treaty obtained through duress." On October 22, 2004, South Korean foreign affairs minister Ban Ki-moon
also remarked on the voiding of the Gando Convention.
Hangul
Hangul,Pronounced or ; Korean: 한글 Hangeul/Han'gŭl or 조선글 Chosŏn'gŭl/Joseongeul the Korean alphabet, is the native alphabet of the Korean language. It is a separate script from Hanja, the logographic Chinese characters which are also sometimes used to write Korean...
: 간도협약, Hanja
Hanja
Hanja is the Korean name for the Chinese characters hanzi. More specifically, it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation...
: 間島協約) was a treaty
Treaty
A treaty is an express agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations. A treaty may also be known as an agreement, protocol, covenant, convention or exchange of letters, among other terms...
signed between Imperial Japan
Empire of Japan
The Empire of Japan is the name of the state of Japan that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 to the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of...
and Qing China
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
in which Japan recognized China's claims to Jiandao, called Gando in Korean. Japan received railroad concessions in Northeast China
Northeast China
Northeast China, historically known in English as Manchuria, is a geographical region of China, consisting of the three provinces of Liaoning, Jilin and Heilongjiang. The region is sometimes called the Three Northeast Provinces...
("Manchuria"). The treaty is disputed by some Koreans who maintain an irredentist claim on Gando.
Background
Jiandao, or Gando as it is called in Korean, is part of northeast China. Many different states and tribes succeeded each other in ruling the area during ancient times, to include Korean states such as BuyeoBuyeo
Buyeo can mean:*Buyeo kingdom, a kingdom located in today's North Korea and southern Manchuria from around the 2nd century BC to 494 AD*Buyeo County, a county in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea, and one-time capital of the ancient kingdom of Baekje...
, its successor Goguryeo
Goguryeo
Goguryeo or Koguryŏ was an ancient Korean kingdom located in present day northern and central parts of the Korean Peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province....
, and the subsequent Balhae
Balhae
Balhae was a Manchurian kingdom established after the fall of Goguryeo. After Goguryeo's capital and southern territories fell to Unified Silla, Dae Jo-yeong, a Mohe general, whose father was Dae Jung-sang, established Jin , later called Balhae.Balhae occupied southern parts of Manchuria and...
, followed later by the Jurchen Jin Dynasty and the Khitans.
Traditionally, the area was inhabited by nomadic tribes from the north and west, as well as Koreans
Korean people
The Korean people are an ethnic group originating in the Korean peninsula and Manchuria. Koreans are one of the most ethnically and linguistically homogeneous groups in the world.-Names:...
and Chinese
Chinese people
The term Chinese people may refer to any of the following:*People with Han Chinese ethnicity ....
fleeing unrest, famine, or other sociopolitical conditions in their home countries. Eventually it, and much of the rest of Manchuria with it, came under the control of the Manchu
Manchu
The Manchu people or Man are an ethnic minority of China who originated in Manchuria . During their rise in the 17th century, with the help of the Ming dynasty rebels , they came to power in China and founded the Qing Dynasty, which ruled China until the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, which...
and later the Qing Dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
. Gando itself, as it shared a border with Korea
Korea
Korea ) is an East Asian geographic region that is currently divided into two separate sovereign states — North Korea and South Korea. Located on the Korean Peninsula, Korea is bordered by the People's Republic of China to the northwest, Russia to the northeast, and is separated from Japan to the...
, was a particularly high-frequency destination for Koreans fleeing worsening conditions in the late Joseon Dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
after the early 1800s. By the middle and late 1800s, Koreans formed a majority of the population living in Gando, and when the Qing opened up Manchuria to Han Chinese migration in the 1870s and Gando in 1881, a large number of Koreans were already living there and this raised a boundary dispute issue that had been negotiated in 1712 but, due to an ambiguity in the characters used, was subject to some speculation which was deftly used by the Koreans living in Gando to claim that they were still on Korean soil. While punishments for cross-border movement into northeast China by Han Chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
and Koreans by their respective governments (the Qing and Joseon
Joseon
Joseon, Chosŏn, Choseon or Chosun are English spellings of the Korean *word for "Korea". It may refer to:*Korea*Gojoseon, the first Korean kingdom, from 2333 BC to 108 BC.*Joseon Dynasty of Korea, from AD 1392 to 1910....
) were on the books and Koreans apprehended in Gando were repatriated to Korea by Qing authorities, it is evident that these regulations did not deter people fleeing poor conditions, and they were able to make this claim in an attempt to escape relocation and punishment. The ambiguity in the original 1712 treaty gradually became official Joseon
Joseon
Joseon, Chosŏn, Choseon or Chosun are English spellings of the Korean *word for "Korea". It may refer to:*Korea*Gojoseon, the first Korean kingdom, from 2333 BC to 108 BC.*Joseon Dynasty of Korea, from AD 1392 to 1910....
policy, but the issue itself did not come to a head until this time, when the Joseon Dynasty itself was in much turmoil and in no position to re-negotiate the boundary.
By the early 20th century, with increasing Japanese
Empire of Japan
The Empire of Japan is the name of the state of Japan that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 to the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of...
intervention in Korea
Korean Empire
The Greater Korean Empire was an empire of Korea that succeeded the Joseon Dynasty.In October 1897, Emperor Gojong proclaimed the new entity at Gyeongungung Palace and oversaw the partially successful modernization of the military, economy, land system, education system, and various industries...
, more Koreans fled to Gando, where they were sometimes welcomed by local Qing authorities as a source of labor and agricultural skill. Additionally, as a result of this consolidation of Japanese control over Korea (which would culminate with the Japan-Korea treaty of 1910, with which Japan annexed Korea and began the Japanese occupation of Korea that ended in 1945), Korea was not able to re-negotiate the renewed boundary issues with the Qing, which was having problems of its own due to Western imperialism
Imperialism
Imperialism, as defined by Dictionary of Human Geography, is "the creation and/or maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationships, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based on domination and subordination." The imperialism of the last 500 years,...
and pressures from Japan.
Japanese interventions
See also: Jiandao incidentBy 1905, the Korean Empire
Korean Empire
The Greater Korean Empire was an empire of Korea that succeeded the Joseon Dynasty.In October 1897, Emperor Gojong proclaimed the new entity at Gyeongungung Palace and oversaw the partially successful modernization of the military, economy, land system, education system, and various industries...
was effectively a Japanese
Empire of Japan
The Empire of Japan is the name of the state of Japan that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 to the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of...
protectorate (see Eulsa Treaty
Eulsa Treaty
The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905, also known as the Eulsa Treaty or Japan–Korea Protectorate Treaty, was made between the Empire of Japan and the Korean Empire in 1905. Negotiations were concluded on November 17, 1905....
). As a result of the Russo-Japanese War
Russo-Japanese War
The Russo-Japanese War was "the first great war of the 20th century." It grew out of rival imperial ambitions of the Russian Empire and Japanese Empire over Manchuria and Korea...
which ended in the same year, Korea was fully surrounded and occupied by Japanese troops
Imperial Japanese Army
-Foundation:During the Meiji Restoration, the military forces loyal to the Emperor were samurai drawn primarily from the loyalist feudal domains of Satsuma and Chōshū...
. The negotiations to end the Russo-Japanese War resulted in the Portsmouth Treaty, which stated that "Japan possesses in Korea paramount political, military, and economical [sic] interests" and with the Russian concessions to Japan effectively ensured a Japanese sphere of influence in northeast Asia.
In 1907, Japanese forces infiltrated the rather porous border between Korea and China, but a few months after this infiltration, the Japanese called the border issue "unsettled" because the majority of the population there was still ethnically Korean; as effective overlords of Korea, they claimed that Japan's jurisdiction over Korean subjects should extend into Gando, and invaded Gando in force in August 1907, which resulted in the Qing
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
administration of China issuing a 13-point refutation asserting its claim to Jiandao.
The convention
As the particulars of the Korean boundary dispute with QingQing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
China and the large population of ethnic Koreans in Gando was no secret to anyone in Northeast Asia
Northeast Asia
Northeast Asia and Northeastern Asia refers to the northeastern subregion of Asia. Though the precise definition of Northeast Asia changes according to context, it always includes Japan and the Korean Peninsula, and is sometimes used to refer to these two regions exclusively.-Definitions:The...
, it is likely that the Japanese proposed the Gando Convention as a potential threat to continue pressing to claim Gando for Korea as a part of the Japanese Empire if the concessions by China to Japan listed in the Convention were not granted.
Treaties and agreements, while often lopsided in that era (see unequal treaties
Unequal Treaties
“Unequal treaty” is a term used in specific reference to a number of treaties imposed by Western powers, during the 19th and early 20th centuries, on Qing Dynasty China and late Tokugawa Japan...
), often did at least nominally include concessions for all parties signing such agreements. In the Convention, Japan agreed to recognize Gando as Chinese territory and to withdraw its forces from there back into Korea within two months of the date of the agreement. In return, China conceded exclusive railroad rights in Manchuria to Japan, among other things. The convention also contained provisions for the protection and rights of ethnic Koreans under Chinese rule.
Korean claims
The Korean claim is partly based on what is perceived (on the Korean side) to be an ambiguity in the 1712 boundary agreement between the Qing DynastyQing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
(which ruled China at the time) and the Joseon Dynasty
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon , was a Korean state founded by Taejo Yi Seong-gye that lasted for approximately five centuries. It was founded in the aftermath of the overthrow of the Goryeo at what is today the city of Kaesong. Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul...
(which ruled Korea at the time); this actually did not become an issue again until about 150 years after the agreement was approved by both parties, when Manchuria and Gando was opened to Han Chinese
Han Chinese
Han Chinese are an ethnic group native to China and are the largest single ethnic group in the world.Han Chinese constitute about 92% of the population of the People's Republic of China , 98% of the population of the Republic of China , 78% of the population of Singapore, and about 20% of the...
migration by the Qing. The other major part of the claim relies on the fact that by the time the Gando Convention was signed in 1909, the Korean state (by that time the Korean Empire
Korean Empire
The Greater Korean Empire was an empire of Korea that succeeded the Joseon Dynasty.In October 1897, Emperor Gojong proclaimed the new entity at Gyeongungung Palace and oversaw the partially successful modernization of the military, economy, land system, education system, and various industries...
) was neither consulted nor had any way of disputing the legitimacy of the treaty as it was already a protectorate of the Japanese Empire and was essentially prevented from resolving or re-negotiating the boundary dispute as an independent state, and as such the Gando Convention, like other unequal treaties (such as the Eulsa Treaty
Eulsa Treaty
The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905, also known as the Eulsa Treaty or Japan–Korea Protectorate Treaty, was made between the Empire of Japan and the Korean Empire in 1905. Negotiations were concluded on November 17, 1905....
and the Japan-Korea treaty of 1910) dealing with Korean territory/governance or claims made by Imperial Japan, should be revoked and the boundary dispute rectified between Korea (though there is no stated consensus on which of the two current Koreas should be party to this) and the People's Republic of China
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
(though the Republic of China
Republic of China
The Republic of China , commonly known as Taiwan , is a unitary sovereign state located in East Asia. Originally based in mainland China, the Republic of China currently governs the island of Taiwan , which forms over 99% of its current territory, as well as Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and other minor...
, as the nationalist successor to the Qing Dynasty, may be a more legitimate party to this on the Chinese side as it still claims all of the territory held while the Qing Dynasty still ruled China as a sovereign state).
In the modern era
When the Japanese occupation of Korea ended in August 1945, the Soviet administration in the north of Korea and the American administration in the south of Korea hampered any unified Korean claim to Gando, and after the Korean WarKorean War
The Korean War was a conventional war between South Korea, supported by the United Nations, and North Korea, supported by the People's Republic of China , with military material aid from the Soviet Union...
and the geopolitical situation it created, no serious Korean claim to Gando was made by either North
North Korea
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea , , is a country in East Asia, occupying the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. Its capital and largest city is Pyongyang. The Korean Demilitarized Zone serves as the buffer zone between North Korea and South Korea...
or South
South Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
Korea. In 1963, North Korea signed a boundary treaty with the People's Republic of China
People's Republic of China
China , officially the People's Republic of China , is the most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion citizens. Located in East Asia, the country covers approximately 9.6 million square kilometres...
, which settled the boundary between the two at the Yalu/Amnok (Chinese/Korean names) and Tumen
Tumen River
The Tumen River is a 521 km-long river that serves as part of the boundary between China, North Korea, and Russia, rising in Mount Baekdu and flowing into the Sea of Japan....
Rivers; this agreement primarily stipulated that three-fifths of Heaven Lake at the peak of Mt. Baekdu would go to North Korea, and two-fifths to China.
However, the boundary between North Korea and the People's Republic of China is still contested, in spite of the 1963 agreement. In response to North Korea's perceived lack of support in the Sino-Soviet split
Sino-Soviet split
In political science, the term Sino–Soviet split denotes the worsening of political and ideologic relations between the People's Republic of China and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics during the Cold War...
, China demanded that North Korea cede its portion of the peak of Mt. Baekdu to China, and between March 1968 and March 1969, a number of border clashes between North Korean forces
Korean People's Army
The Korean People's Army , also known as the Inmin Gun, are the military forces of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. Kim Jong-il is the Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army and Chairman of the National Defence Commission...
and Chinese forces took place in the Mt. Baekdu region. Chinese demands for the rest of Mt. Baekdu were eventually dropped in 1970 in order to repair relations between North Korea and China. China has recognized North Korea's sovereignty over some 80% of the islands in the Yalu/Amnok and Tumen
Tumen River
The Tumen River is a 521 km-long river that serves as part of the boundary between China, North Korea, and Russia, rising in Mount Baekdu and flowing into the Sea of Japan....
Rivers, and also accepted North Korea's control of some 90% of the mouth of the Yalu/Amnok River. While not openly discussed anymore, it would appear that the 1963 agreement is only something of a framework and not exactly a binding contract for either North Korea or China.
South Korea later recognized these agreements as delineating the Korean-Chinese boundary as well. Today, none of the governments involved (North Korea, South Korea, Japan, or China) officially support the claim that Gando is Korean territory or should be reinstated to either Korean state.
For years, the South Korean government avoided making any official statement regarding the Gando Convention. However, in 2004, the South Korea
South Korea
The Republic of Korea , , is a sovereign state in East Asia, located on the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by the People's Republic of China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the East China Sea and Republic of China to the south...
n government issued the following statement: "Our government takes the position that the 1909 Gando Convention, signed by Japan illegally without Korea's consent, is null and void, to the extent that the Eulsa Treaty
Eulsa Treaty
The Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905, also known as the Eulsa Treaty or Japan–Korea Protectorate Treaty, was made between the Empire of Japan and the Korean Empire in 1905. Negotiations were concluded on November 17, 1905....
, which deprived Korea of its diplomatic rights in 1905, is a null-and-void treaty obtained through duress." On October 22, 2004, South Korean foreign affairs minister Ban Ki-moon
Ban Ki-moon
Ban Ki-moon is the eighth and current Secretary-General of the United Nations, after succeeding Kofi Annan in 2007. Before going on to be Secretary-General, Ban was a career diplomat in South Korea's Ministry of Foreign Affairs and in the United Nations. He entered diplomatic service the year he...
also remarked on the voiding of the Gando Convention.