Chowanoke
Encyclopedia
The Chowanoke, also spelled Chowanoc, was an Algonquian
-language American Indian tribe
. They were the largest and most powerful Algonquian tribe in present-day North Carolina
, occupying most or all of the coastal banks of the Chowan River
in the northeastern part of the state at time of the first English contacts in 1585/6. Their peoples had occupied their main town for 800 years, and earlier indigenous cultures in the area have been dated to 4500 BC.
The tribe was largely extinct by the late 17th century; with many deaths likely due to infectious disease
, including a smallpox
epidemic
in 1696.
Descendants intermarried with other ethnic groups; some moved to Ohio
and Indiana
. Known descendants served with the United States Colored Troops
during the US Civil War. Some survivors merged with the Meherrin
tribe; others with the Pee Dee Indian Tribe
.
to the Chesapeake Bay
. Tribes included the Chowanoke, Weapemeoc, Poteskeet, Moratoc, Roanoke
, Secotan
(Secoughtan), Pomuik, Neusiok, Croatan
and possibly the Chesepiooc.
According to the 16th-century English explorer Ralph Lane
, the Chowanoke (Chowanoc, Chawonoc) had 19 villages, with the capital being the town of Chowanoke near present-day Harrellsville in Hertford County. They were the most numerous and most powerful of the Algonquian tribes in North Carolina. Lane described the town as being large enough to muster 700-800 warriors, which meant their total population was likely more than 2100. Another later account by Harriot estimated that all the villages could muster 800 warriors. Lane's account was quite accurate in terms of his description of the town, its location and structures, but the population estimates may have accurately been between his (which might have been 4,000 for all the people, and Harriot's, about 2100 overall).
Archeological excavation at the site of Chowanoke in the 1980s confirmed Lane’s report of its location. The town had been occupied by humans for 800 years, with radiocarbon dating
establishing 825 AD as the earliest date of culture related to the Chowanoke. Including large agricultural fields, the town was a mile long and was home to several hundred Chowanoke people and possibly as many as 2100. It contained a precinct for the ruler and nobility or elite residences, public buildings, temples and burials near the north end of what the archeologists called Area B. This may have been the 30-longhouse cluster observed by Harriot. Evidence of other residences was found in areas of erosion on the edges of the peninsula.
Other parts of the site showed older habitation: Middle Archaic Morrow Mountain phase (ca. 3500-4500 B.C.); and again in the Deep Creek (8000-300 B.C.) and Mount Pleasant (300 B.C.-A.D. 800) phases of the Woodland period
. This is typical of other sites of indigenous habitation, in which different groups lived in certain areas and abandoned them for a time, and other groups migrated to occupy the area again.
It is probable that infectious diseases from the first English contact, such as measles
and smallpox
, caused high fatalities and considerably weakened the Chowanoke, as they did other coastal Carolina Algonquian peoples
. None had natural immunity
to such new diseases. The neighboring Iroquoian-speaking Tuscarora
, who had inhabited areas to the inland, expelled the remaining Chowanoke from the territory along the river.
In 1607 an English expedition, in the area on orders from Captain John Smith
of Jamestown
, found that hardly any Chowanoke people were left along the Chowan River. They had been reduced to one settlement across the river in Gates County on Bennett's Creek
.
Several decades later, in 1644 and 1675-77, the Chowanoke had strengthened enough to wage two wars against English settlers. They met defeat each time. After these wars, the English designated the Chowanoke settlement on Bennett's Creek as the first Indian reservation
in the present-day USA.
Due to colonists' encroachments and violations of treaties, by 1754 only two Chowanoke families: the Bennetts and the Robbinses, remained in the Bennett's Creek settlement. Bennett and Robbins males served in the American Revolutionary War
. By 1810, only Robbins families were left at the Bennett's Creek settlement. They seemed to have assimilated
by 1822, having dispersed and married their more numerous White and Black neighbors.
Many Robbinses migrated to the free States of Ohio and Indiana after Nat Turner's Rebellion
of 1831. Some of the Bennetts moved further south in Anson County, North Carolina
with American Indian trading families. Their descendants can be found there; some are members of one of the several Pee Dee Indian tribes.
One group of Robbinses remained intact. They first moved to Colerain
in Bertie County
, downriver on the Chowan. Four members of this extended family served in the United States Colored Troops
(USCT) of the Union Army
during the US Civil War.
One of the four, Parker D. Robbins, was later elected as a state legislator for Bertie County. Parker Robbins also was a postmaster
, inventor, mechanic
, sawmill
operator, and steamboat
builder and operator. Many Robbins family descendants have since become members of the Meherrin
tribe, based in Hertford County.
Algonquian languages
The Algonquian languages also Algonkian) are a subfamily of Native American languages which includes most of the languages in the Algic language family. The name of the Algonquian language family is distinguished from the orthographically similar Algonquin dialect of the Ojibwe language, which is a...
-language American Indian tribe
Tribe
A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states.Many anthropologists use the term tribal society to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups .Some theorists...
. They were the largest and most powerful Algonquian tribe in present-day North Carolina
North Carolina
North Carolina is a state located in the southeastern United States. The state borders South Carolina and Georgia to the south, Tennessee to the west and Virginia to the north. North Carolina contains 100 counties. Its capital is Raleigh, and its largest city is Charlotte...
, occupying most or all of the coastal banks of the Chowan River
Chowan River
The Chowan River is a blackwater river formed with the merging of Virginia's Blackwater and Nottoway rivers near the stateline between Virginia and North Carolina. According to the USGS a variant name is Choan River....
in the northeastern part of the state at time of the first English contacts in 1585/6. Their peoples had occupied their main town for 800 years, and earlier indigenous cultures in the area have been dated to 4500 BC.
The tribe was largely extinct by the late 17th century; with many deaths likely due to infectious disease
Infectious disease
Infectious diseases, also known as communicable diseases, contagious diseases or transmissible diseases comprise clinically evident illness resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological agents in an individual host organism...
, including a smallpox
Smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor. The disease is also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera, which is a derivative of the Latin varius, meaning "spotted", or varus, meaning "pimple"...
epidemic
Epidemic
In epidemiology, an epidemic , occurs when new cases of a certain disease, in a given human population, and during a given period, substantially exceed what is expected based on recent experience...
in 1696.
Descendants intermarried with other ethnic groups; some moved to Ohio
Ohio
Ohio is a Midwestern state in the United States. The 34th largest state by area in the U.S.,it is the 7th‑most populous with over 11.5 million residents, containing several major American cities and seven metropolitan areas with populations of 500,000 or more.The state's capital is Columbus...
and Indiana
Indiana
Indiana is a US state, admitted to the United States as the 19th on December 11, 1816. It is located in the Midwestern United States and Great Lakes Region. With 6,483,802 residents, the state is ranked 15th in population and 16th in population density. Indiana is ranked 38th in land area and is...
. Known descendants served with the United States Colored Troops
United States Colored Troops
The United States Colored Troops were regiments of the United States Army during the American Civil War that were composed of African American soldiers. First recruited in 1863, by the end of the Civil War, the men of the 175 regiments of the USCT constituted approximately one-tenth of the Union...
during the US Civil War. Some survivors merged with the Meherrin
Meherrin
The Meherrin Nation is one of eight state-recognized Nations of Native Americans in North Carolina. They reside in rural northeastern North Carolina, near the river of the same name on the Virginia-North Carolina border. They received formal state recognition in 1986. The Meherrin have an...
tribe; others with the Pee Dee Indian Tribe
Pee Dee (tribe)
The Pee Dee tribe are a nation of Native Americans of the southeast United States, especially the Low Country of present-day South Carolina. Several tribes are recognized by the state, although none has federal recognition. The Pee Dee River and the Pee Dee region of South Carolina were named for...
.
History
The Algonquian peoples in North Carolina likely migrated from northern areas, and developed a culture modified by local conditions. The numerous tribes occupied an approximately 6000 square miles (15,539.9 km²) area of Carolina Algonqkian territory in northeastern North Carolina, from the Neuse RiverNeuse River
The Neuse River is a river rising in the Piedmont of North Carolina and emptying into Pamlico Sound below New Bern. Its total length is approximately , making it the longest river entirely contained in North Carolina. The Trent River joins it at New Bern. Its drainage basin, measuring in area,...
to the Chesapeake Bay
Chesapeake Bay
The Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary in the United States. It lies off the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by Maryland and Virginia. The Chesapeake Bay's drainage basin covers in the District of Columbia and parts of six states: New York, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and West...
. Tribes included the Chowanoke, Weapemeoc, Poteskeet, Moratoc, Roanoke
Roanoke (tribe)
The Roanoke, also spelled Roanoac, tribe were a Carolina Algonquian-speaking people whose territory comprised present-day Dare County, Roanoke Island and part of the mainland at the time of English exploration and colonization...
, Secotan
Secotan
The Secotans were one of eight groups of Native Americans dominant in the Carolina sound region, between 1584 and 1590, with which English colonizers had varying degrees of contact...
(Secoughtan), Pomuik, Neusiok, Croatan
Croatan
The Croatan were a small Native American group living in the coastal areas of what is now North Carolina. They may have been a branch of the larger Roanoke people or allied with them....
and possibly the Chesepiooc.
According to the 16th-century English explorer Ralph Lane
Ralph Lane
Sir Ralph Lane was an English explorer of the Elizabethan era. He was part of the unsuccessful attempt in 1585 to colonize Roanoke Island, North Carolina. He also served the Crown in Ireland and was knighted by the Queen in 1593....
, the Chowanoke (Chowanoc, Chawonoc) had 19 villages, with the capital being the town of Chowanoke near present-day Harrellsville in Hertford County. They were the most numerous and most powerful of the Algonquian tribes in North Carolina. Lane described the town as being large enough to muster 700-800 warriors, which meant their total population was likely more than 2100. Another later account by Harriot estimated that all the villages could muster 800 warriors. Lane's account was quite accurate in terms of his description of the town, its location and structures, but the population estimates may have accurately been between his (which might have been 4,000 for all the people, and Harriot's, about 2100 overall).
Archeological excavation at the site of Chowanoke in the 1980s confirmed Lane’s report of its location. The town had been occupied by humans for 800 years, with radiocarbon dating
Radiocarbon dating
Radiocarbon dating is a radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring radioisotope carbon-14 to estimate the age of carbon-bearing materials up to about 58,000 to 62,000 years. Raw, i.e. uncalibrated, radiocarbon ages are usually reported in radiocarbon years "Before Present" ,...
establishing 825 AD as the earliest date of culture related to the Chowanoke. Including large agricultural fields, the town was a mile long and was home to several hundred Chowanoke people and possibly as many as 2100. It contained a precinct for the ruler and nobility or elite residences, public buildings, temples and burials near the north end of what the archeologists called Area B. This may have been the 30-longhouse cluster observed by Harriot. Evidence of other residences was found in areas of erosion on the edges of the peninsula.
Other parts of the site showed older habitation: Middle Archaic Morrow Mountain phase (ca. 3500-4500 B.C.); and again in the Deep Creek (8000-300 B.C.) and Mount Pleasant (300 B.C.-A.D. 800) phases of the Woodland period
Woodland period
The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures was from roughly 1000 BCE to 1000 CE in the eastern part of North America. The term "Woodland Period" was introduced in the 1930s as a generic header for prehistoric sites falling between the Archaic hunter-gatherers and the...
. This is typical of other sites of indigenous habitation, in which different groups lived in certain areas and abandoned them for a time, and other groups migrated to occupy the area again.
It is probable that infectious diseases from the first English contact, such as measles
Measles
Measles, also known as rubeola or morbilli, is an infection of the respiratory system caused by a virus, specifically a paramyxovirus of the genus Morbillivirus. Morbilliviruses, like other paramyxoviruses, are enveloped, single-stranded, negative-sense RNA viruses...
and smallpox
Smallpox
Smallpox was an infectious disease unique to humans, caused by either of two virus variants, Variola major and Variola minor. The disease is also known by the Latin names Variola or Variola vera, which is a derivative of the Latin varius, meaning "spotted", or varus, meaning "pimple"...
, caused high fatalities and considerably weakened the Chowanoke, as they did other coastal Carolina Algonquian peoples
Algonquian peoples
The Algonquian are one of the most populous and widespread North American native language groups, with tribes originally numbering in the hundreds. Today hundreds of thousands of individuals identify with various Algonquian peoples...
. None had natural immunity
Immunity (medical)
Immunity is a biological term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. Immunity involves both specific and non-specific components. The non-specific components act either as barriers or as eliminators of wide...
to such new diseases. The neighboring Iroquoian-speaking Tuscarora
Tuscarora (tribe)
The Tuscarora are a Native American people of the Iroquoian-language family, with members in New York, Canada, and North Carolina...
, who had inhabited areas to the inland, expelled the remaining Chowanoke from the territory along the river.
In 1607 an English expedition, in the area on orders from Captain John Smith
John Smith of Jamestown
Captain John Smith Admiral of New England was an English soldier, explorer, and author. He was knighted for his services to Sigismund Bathory, Prince of Transylvania and friend Mózes Székely...
of Jamestown
Jamestown, Virginia
Jamestown was a settlement in the Colony of Virginia. Established by the Virginia Company of London as "James Fort" on May 14, 1607 , it was the first permanent English settlement in what is now the United States, following several earlier failed attempts, including the Lost Colony of Roanoke...
, found that hardly any Chowanoke people were left along the Chowan River. They had been reduced to one settlement across the river in Gates County on Bennett's Creek
Bennett's Creek
Bennett Creek or Bennett's Creek is a tributary of the Nansemond River in Suffolk, Virginia.Bennett's Creek Park offers two free boat ramps that access the Nansemond River, a playground, tennis courts, restrooms, three covered shelters that can be reserved for use, a nature trail, open fields, a...
.
Several decades later, in 1644 and 1675-77, the Chowanoke had strengthened enough to wage two wars against English settlers. They met defeat each time. After these wars, the English designated the Chowanoke settlement on Bennett's Creek as the first Indian reservation
Indian reservation
An American Indian reservation is an area of land managed by a Native American tribe under the United States Department of the Interior's Bureau of Indian Affairs...
in the present-day USA.
Due to colonists' encroachments and violations of treaties, by 1754 only two Chowanoke families: the Bennetts and the Robbinses, remained in the Bennett's Creek settlement. Bennett and Robbins males served in the American Revolutionary War
American Revolutionary War
The American Revolutionary War , the American War of Independence, or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers.The war was the result of the...
. By 1810, only Robbins families were left at the Bennett's Creek settlement. They seemed to have assimilated
Cultural assimilation
Cultural assimilation is a socio-political response to demographic multi-ethnicity that supports or promotes the assimilation of ethnic minorities into the dominant culture. The term assimilation is often used with regard to immigrants and various ethnic groups who have settled in a new land. New...
by 1822, having dispersed and married their more numerous White and Black neighbors.
Many Robbinses migrated to the free States of Ohio and Indiana after Nat Turner's Rebellion
Nat Turner's Rebellion
Nat Turner's Rebellion was a slave rebellion that took place in Southampton County, Virginia during August 1831. Led by Nat Turner, rebel slaves killed anywhere from 55–65 white people, the highest number of fatalities caused by slave uprisings in the South...
of 1831. Some of the Bennetts moved further south in Anson County, North Carolina
Anson County, North Carolina
-See also:*National Register of Historic Places listings in Anson County, North Carolina-External links:*...
with American Indian trading families. Their descendants can be found there; some are members of one of the several Pee Dee Indian tribes.
One group of Robbinses remained intact. They first moved to Colerain
Colerain, North Carolina
Colerain is a town in Bertie County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 201 at the 2008 census.-Geography:Colerain is located at ....
in Bertie County
Bertie County, North Carolina
-External links:**...
, downriver on the Chowan. Four members of this extended family served in the United States Colored Troops
United States Colored Troops
The United States Colored Troops were regiments of the United States Army during the American Civil War that were composed of African American soldiers. First recruited in 1863, by the end of the Civil War, the men of the 175 regiments of the USCT constituted approximately one-tenth of the Union...
(USCT) of the Union Army
Union Army
The Union Army was the land force that fought for the Union during the American Civil War. It was also known as the Federal Army, the U.S. Army, the Northern Army and the National Army...
during the US Civil War.
One of the four, Parker D. Robbins, was later elected as a state legislator for Bertie County. Parker Robbins also was a postmaster
Postmaster
A postmaster is the head of an individual post office. Postmistress is not used anymore in the United States, as the "master" component of the word refers to a person of authority and has no gender quality...
, inventor, mechanic
Mechanic
A mechanic is a craftsman or technician who uses tools to build or repair machinery.Many mechanics are specialized in a particular field such as auto mechanics, bicycle mechanics, motorcycle mechanics, boiler mechanics, general mechanics, industrial maintenance mechanics , air conditioning and...
, sawmill
Sawmill
A sawmill is a facility where logs are cut into boards.-Sawmill process:A sawmill's basic operation is much like those of hundreds of years ago; a log enters on one end and dimensional lumber exits on the other end....
operator, and steamboat
Steamboat
A steamboat or steamship, sometimes called a steamer, is a ship in which the primary method of propulsion is steam power, typically driving propellers or paddlewheels...
builder and operator. Many Robbins family descendants have since become members of the Meherrin
Meherrin
The Meherrin Nation is one of eight state-recognized Nations of Native Americans in North Carolina. They reside in rural northeastern North Carolina, near the river of the same name on the Virginia-North Carolina border. They received formal state recognition in 1986. The Meherrin have an...
tribe, based in Hertford County.
Notable Chowanoke
- Parker D. Robbins, elected state legislator from Bertie CountyBertie County, North Carolina-External links:**...
during Reconstruction.
External links
- Marvin T. Jones, "A Chowanoke Family", Roanoke-Chowan