Broken Mammoth
Encyclopedia
Broken Mammoth, Alaska is an archeological site located in the Tanana River Valley
, Alaska
in the United States
. The site was occupied approximately 11,000 B.P. to 12,000 B.P. making this one of the oldest known sites in Alaska. Charles E. Holmes discovered the site in 1989 and investigation of the site began in 1990 and excavations are ongoing to this day.
, making this one of the oldest sites in Alaska. It is possible that the site was occupied at approximately the same time as other Nenana complex
sites in Alaska.
Features found at the site include hearths with charcoal
dating to approximately 12,200 BP implying that some form of temporary occupation occurred which could include using the site as a temporary base. A small bone needle
found at one of these hearths supports this theory. According to the Alaska Department of Natural Resources
the evidence points to small camps, which served as headquarters for small hunting groups to operate seasonally. Activities that would have most likely occurred here include: manufacturing of tools and maintenance as well as food processing
and skin working (as evident by the remains of a bone needle)
with low vegetation, mostly shrubs and few trees. The regional pollen record provides evidence of shrubland with plant life including dwarf birch and willow.
After approximately 9,000 years this shrubland became woodland which supporter spruce
and alder trees
. The faunal remains of a red squirrel
and a porcupine
date the process of forestation at slightly more than 9,500 years ago. Windier conditions reestablished at Broken Mammoth around 10,000 BP with loess
accumulation accelerating until about 7800 B.P. After this time modern conditions stabilized after 5700 B.P.
The stratigraphy
at Broken Mammoth is well preserved and is one of the primary factors that have helped establish the age of the site. The site consists of Aeolian sediments (sand and loess) overlying weathered bedrock of the Yukon-Tanana crystalline terrace. The deposits are divided in four units: A, B, C and D with the oldest layer being unit A. Unit A is composed of fine sand dating to approximately 12,000 B.P. Units B, C, and D are made up of Aeolian silt or loess. Unit B contains three different palaeosol complexes with B1 dating to 11,800 B.P. to 11,200 B.P, B2 dates to 10,300 B.P. to 9,300 B.P while there is no direct dating for B3. Unit C dates to sometime after 9,000 B.P with the final unit (Unit D) being an accumulation of silt deposits over the last 8,000 to 9,000 years.
The resources of the region were diverse and plentiful, with large mammals; birds (mostly waterfowl) and the occupants of this region exploited some fish as well. Avian fauna is extremely diverse including mallard
, teal
, swan
and geese
. The Broken Mammoth site boasts a well-preserved display of animal resources, most notably of large animals including mammoth
, elk
, caribou
and bison
. It appears that large animals, particularly bison and elk were important. It is possible inhabitants even hunted or scavenged mammoth, however they more than likely butchered any mammoth kills away from the site. No post cranial elements of mammoth remains have been found at the Broken Mammoth site however the obvious use of mammoth tusks as tools make it clear that the inhabitants of the area had access to such remains. Radiocarbon dates the some of the fossilized ivory from 20,000 B.P. to 18,000 B.P. clearly indicating that it was collected for use as tools. However ivory from the oldest levels at Broken Mammoth dates to approximately 13, 525 B.P. and coincides with the dating of the hearth charcoal at the site that falls within that time period suggesting that the people of the region had contact with living mammoths.
The evidence of this site suggests highly mobile groups who moved seasonally over the landscapes. The people exploited the various resources and wildlife by intercepting the various migratory routes of the herd animals (bison and elk) and migratory birds. The people of the region were hunters of large game such as bison but there is very little evidence that suggests they hunted mammoths. It can be theorized that the technology they had could allow for the opportunistic hunting on mammoths but it is highly unlikely that mammoth was a key resource for these people. It is much more likely that the ivory
tools made from mammoth tusks were scavenged.
of the Tanana River Valley in the Beringian Period (>13,000 B.P. while a land bridge connecting Alaska and Siberia
still remained) into two time periods the first dating prior to 13,500 B.P. and the second time period falling between 13,500 B.P. and 13,000 B.P. The lithics found in the older time period include bifacial tools, blade and microblade technology
. Only three sites in the Tanana River Valley have reliably dated to the first time period, Swan Point
, Meade
and Broken Mammoth. The Broken Mammoth site can be considered a part of the Nenana complex of tool manufacturing and techniques.
Holmes categorizes the artifacts further naming artifacts following the first time period the Chindadn complex. Chindadn complex distinguishes the second time period from 13,500 B.P. to 13,000 B.P. The lithics from this period are small triangular or teardrop-shaped bifaces, usually made of thin flake and often poorly flaked. The Chindadn complex is inadequately seen at the Broken Mammoth site; only a few flakes and bones are directly dated to within this time period with no microblades being found yet at this time.
The Transitional Period followed the Beringian Period from 13,000 B.P. to 9,500 B.P. Two types of Chindadn points are associated with this time period, Chindadn point two being triangular shaped and Chindadn point three having a concave shaped base. Points found at Broken Mammoth of these two type date to approximately 12,100 B.P. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal from hearths found at the site date to approximately to 10,290 B.P. and 12,270 B.P. At other Tanana River Valley sites such as Swan Point and Healey Lake, microblades were also found with these sites but curiously enough not at Broken Mammoth. The reasons for the absence of microblade technology of this time period at Broken Mammoth remain unclear.
The remains of several hearth
s have been found at Broken Mammoth with the radiocarbon dating of the charcoal providing sound evidence for the age of the site. A shallow pit hearth feature was excavated with a radiocarbon date of approximately 4524 years ago and is associated with several flakes and obsidian
microblades. This hearth demonstrates that there was some occupation near the bluff’s edge at the site. A second hearth radiocarbon dated to about 7,600 years ago has evidence of hearthstones, suggesting occupation for an extended period of time. Two more and (possibly a third) hearths, radio carbon dated from 9,690 years ago; 10,270 years ago; and 10,790 years ago respectively, have been found at the site clearly associated with hearthstones with lithics and the remains of fauna excavated around them. This indicates the occupants stayed at this site for some time, long enough to use the hearths multiple times.
As at other Tanana River Valley sites such as Swan Point, Meade and Healey Lake artifacts and stone tools found at Broken Mammoth are relatively infrequent. However the artifacts that have been found have provided keen insight into the history of the occupation of the Tanana River Valley.
Artifacts found at the Broken Mammoth site in Cultural Zone 1 include retouched flakes, end and side scrapers, points and point fragments, flake burins, burin spalls, microblades and microblade cores. The materials that these artifacts were made from include rhyolite
, chalcedony
, chert
, basalt
and obsidian
(the latter providing even more evidence towards an even earlier peopling of North America.) The obsidian that comprised some of the artifacts originated from Batza Tatza in northwest Alaska and from the Wrangall Mountains in east Alaska. This implies that older sites must exist because the raw materials must have been obtained and then distributed to other regions through trade and interaction. Until these sites are discovered we will not know when the occupation of the Beringian straits began, until then Broken Mammoth establishes the earliest date between 11,000 B.P. and 12,000 B.P.
Other artifacts from Cultural Zone 1 include a nearly complete lanceolate point.
Cultural Zone 2 has only produced a few flakes, fire-broken rocks and hearthstones though there is the possibility that microblades could be excavated closer to the bluff edge.
Excavations at Cultural Zone 3 at the site have yielded many tiny flakes, retouched flakes, larger biface fragments, points and point fragment, hammers made of quartz
, and anvils. A small-eyed bone needle was found associated with a hearth that radiocarbon dates to approximately 10,300 B.P. The bone needle suggests that the occupants used this site to process resources, using skins to make clothing.
Debris from the making of tools has been found at Cultural Zone 4. The debris is composed of rhyolite, basalt, obsidian, chert and quartzite, implying that the occupants of the site carried out some manufacturing and or repair of tools. Artifacts at this zone are largely incomplete but include retouched flakes, scrapers, large a quartz chopper/scraper/plane. Also found at this zone are several ivory tusk fragments with scratches that could have come from stone tools. One tusk fragment has a stone microchip embedded in one of the scratches bolstering this theory. A cache was also found with ivory artifacts, two points, and a possible handle. One of the ivory fragments from this cache was radiocarbon dated to approximately 15,800 B.P. The age of the ivory suggests that it was scavenged by the occupants from a much older kill site as opposed to the inhabitants killing and processing the mammoth themselves.
Hoffecker, John F. A Prehistory of the North: Human Settlement of the Higher Latitudes. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP, 2005. ISBN- 0-8135-3468-2
West, Frederick Hadleigh., and Constance F. West. American Beginnings: the Prehistory and Palaeoecology of Beringia. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1996 ISBN- 0-226-89399-5
Tanana Valley
The Tanana Valley is a lowland region in central Alaska in the United States, on the north side of the Alaska Range where the Tanana River emerges from the mountains.-Climate:...
, Alaska
Alaska
Alaska is the largest state in the United States by area. It is situated in the northwest extremity of the North American continent, with Canada to the east, the Arctic Ocean to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the west and south, with Russia further west across the Bering Strait...
in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. The site was occupied approximately 11,000 B.P. to 12,000 B.P. making this one of the oldest known sites in Alaska. Charles E. Holmes discovered the site in 1989 and investigation of the site began in 1990 and excavations are ongoing to this day.
Occupation
The Broken Mammoth site was occupied at least three separate times in its history, the last occupation occurring approximately 2,500 years ago. The oldest occupation of the site occurred around 11,000 years ago according to radiocarbon datingRadiocarbon dating
Radiocarbon dating is a radiometric dating method that uses the naturally occurring radioisotope carbon-14 to estimate the age of carbon-bearing materials up to about 58,000 to 62,000 years. Raw, i.e. uncalibrated, radiocarbon ages are usually reported in radiocarbon years "Before Present" ,...
, making this one of the oldest sites in Alaska. It is possible that the site was occupied at approximately the same time as other Nenana complex
Nenana, Alaska
Nenana is a Home Rule City in the Yukon-Koyukuk Census Area of the Unorganized Borough of the U.S. state of Alaska. Nenana lies at the juncture of the Nenana River and the Tanana River. The population was 402 at the 2000 census. "Nenana" means 'a good place to camp between two rivers.'-History...
sites in Alaska.
Features found at the site include hearths with charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal is the dark grey residue consisting of carbon, and any remaining ash, obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen...
dating to approximately 12,200 BP implying that some form of temporary occupation occurred which could include using the site as a temporary base. A small bone needle
Needle
-Crafting:* Knitting needle, a tool for knitting, not as sharp as a sewing needle* Sewing needle, a long slender tool with a pointed tip* Upholstery needle, a tool for upholstery, generally thick and curved-Botany:* Pine needle, the adult leaf of a pine tree...
found at one of these hearths supports this theory. According to the Alaska Department of Natural Resources
Alaska Department of Natural Resources
The Alaska Department of Natural Resources is a department within the government of Alaska. The Department of Natural Resources develops, conserves and enhances natural resources for present and future Alaskans....
the evidence points to small camps, which served as headquarters for small hunting groups to operate seasonally. Activities that would have most likely occurred here include: manufacturing of tools and maintenance as well as food processing
Food processing
Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food or to transform food into other forms for consumption by humans or animals either in the home or by the food processing industry...
and skin working (as evident by the remains of a bone needle)
Climate and Resources
Early occupation of the Broken Mammoth had a setting similar to the lowland tundraTundra
In physical geography, tundra is a biome where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. The term tundra comes through Russian тундра from the Kildin Sami word tūndâr "uplands," "treeless mountain tract." There are three types of tundra: Arctic tundra, alpine...
with low vegetation, mostly shrubs and few trees. The regional pollen record provides evidence of shrubland with plant life including dwarf birch and willow.
After approximately 9,000 years this shrubland became woodland which supporter spruce
Spruce
A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea , a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the Family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal regions of the earth. Spruces are large trees, from tall when mature, and can be distinguished by their whorled branches and conical...
and alder trees
Alder
Alder is the common name of a genus of flowering plants belonging to the birch family . The genus comprises about 30 species of monoecious trees and shrubs, few reaching large size, distributed throughout the North Temperate Zone and in the Americas along the Andes southwards to...
. The faunal remains of a red squirrel
Red Squirrel
The red squirrel or Eurasian red squirrel is a species of tree squirrel in the genus Sciurus common throughout Eurasia...
and a porcupine
Porcupine
Porcupines are rodents with a coat of sharp spines, or quills, that defend or camouflage them from predators. They are indigenous to the Americas, southern Asia, and Africa. Porcupines are the third largest of the rodents, behind the capybara and the beaver. Most porcupines are about long, with...
date the process of forestation at slightly more than 9,500 years ago. Windier conditions reestablished at Broken Mammoth around 10,000 BP with loess
Loess
Loess is an aeolian sediment formed by the accumulation of wind-blown silt, typically in the 20–50 micrometre size range, twenty percent or less clay and the balance equal parts sand and silt that are loosely cemented by calcium carbonate...
accumulation accelerating until about 7800 B.P. After this time modern conditions stabilized after 5700 B.P.
The stratigraphy
Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy, a branch of geology, studies rock layers and layering . It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks....
at Broken Mammoth is well preserved and is one of the primary factors that have helped establish the age of the site. The site consists of Aeolian sediments (sand and loess) overlying weathered bedrock of the Yukon-Tanana crystalline terrace. The deposits are divided in four units: A, B, C and D with the oldest layer being unit A. Unit A is composed of fine sand dating to approximately 12,000 B.P. Units B, C, and D are made up of Aeolian silt or loess. Unit B contains three different palaeosol complexes with B1 dating to 11,800 B.P. to 11,200 B.P, B2 dates to 10,300 B.P. to 9,300 B.P while there is no direct dating for B3. Unit C dates to sometime after 9,000 B.P with the final unit (Unit D) being an accumulation of silt deposits over the last 8,000 to 9,000 years.
The resources of the region were diverse and plentiful, with large mammals; birds (mostly waterfowl) and the occupants of this region exploited some fish as well. Avian fauna is extremely diverse including mallard
Mallard
The Mallard , or Wild Duck , is a dabbling duck which breeds throughout the temperate and subtropical Americas, Europe, Asia, and North Africa, and has been introduced to New Zealand and Australia....
, teal
Blue-winged Teal
The Blue-winged Teal is a small dabbling duck from North America.-Description:The Blue-winged Teal is long, with a wingspan of , and a weight of . The adult male has a greyish blue head with a white facial crescent, a light brown body with a white patch near the rear and a black tail. The adult...
, swan
Swan
Swans, genus Cygnus, are birds of the family Anatidae, which also includes geese and ducks. Swans are grouped with the closely related geese in the subfamily Anserinae where they form the tribe Cygnini. Sometimes, they are considered a distinct subfamily, Cygninae...
and geese
Goose
The word goose is the English name for a group of waterfowl, belonging to the family Anatidae. This family also includes swans, most of which are larger than true geese, and ducks, which are smaller....
. The Broken Mammoth site boasts a well-preserved display of animal resources, most notably of large animals including mammoth
Mammoth
A mammoth is any species of the extinct genus Mammuthus. These proboscideans are members of Elephantidae, the family of elephants and mammoths, and close relatives of modern elephants. They were often equipped with long curved tusks and, in northern species, a covering of long hair...
, elk
Elk
The Elk is the large deer, also called Cervus canadensis or wapiti, of North America and eastern Asia.Elk may also refer to:Other antlered mammals:...
, caribou
Reindeer
The reindeer , also known as the caribou in North America, is a deer from the Arctic and Subarctic, including both resident and migratory populations. While overall widespread and numerous, some of its subspecies are rare and one has already gone extinct.Reindeer vary considerably in color and size...
and bison
Bison
Members of the genus Bison are large, even-toed ungulates within the subfamily Bovinae. Two extant and four extinct species are recognized...
. It appears that large animals, particularly bison and elk were important. It is possible inhabitants even hunted or scavenged mammoth, however they more than likely butchered any mammoth kills away from the site. No post cranial elements of mammoth remains have been found at the Broken Mammoth site however the obvious use of mammoth tusks as tools make it clear that the inhabitants of the area had access to such remains. Radiocarbon dates the some of the fossilized ivory from 20,000 B.P. to 18,000 B.P. clearly indicating that it was collected for use as tools. However ivory from the oldest levels at Broken Mammoth dates to approximately 13, 525 B.P. and coincides with the dating of the hearth charcoal at the site that falls within that time period suggesting that the people of the region had contact with living mammoths.
The evidence of this site suggests highly mobile groups who moved seasonally over the landscapes. The people exploited the various resources and wildlife by intercepting the various migratory routes of the herd animals (bison and elk) and migratory birds. The people of the region were hunters of large game such as bison but there is very little evidence that suggests they hunted mammoths. It can be theorized that the technology they had could allow for the opportunistic hunting on mammoths but it is highly unlikely that mammoth was a key resource for these people. It is much more likely that the ivory
Ivory
Ivory is a term for dentine, which constitutes the bulk of the teeth and tusks of animals, when used as a material for art or manufacturing. Ivory has been important since ancient times for making a range of items, from ivory carvings to false teeth, fans, dominoes, joint tubes, piano keys and...
tools made from mammoth tusks were scavenged.
Discovery and Excavation
The Broken Mammon site is located on a bluff overlooking the Tanana River. Charles E. Holmes found the site in the summer of 1989 while he was conducting an archaeological survey in the area. Holmes named the site Broken Mammoth because of a piece of broken mammoth bone Holmes found on the slope at the front of the site. Preliminary excavations of the site began in 1990 by Holmes and David Yesner with excavations on the site continuing to this day.Artifacts and Lithic Assemblages
C.E. Holmes divides the lithicsStone tool
A stone tool is, in the most general sense, any tool made either partially or entirely out of stone. Although stone tool-dependent societies and cultures still exist today, most stone tools are associated with prehistoric, particularly Stone Age cultures that have become extinct...
of the Tanana River Valley in the Beringian Period (>13,000 B.P. while a land bridge connecting Alaska and Siberia
Siberia
Siberia is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th...
still remained) into two time periods the first dating prior to 13,500 B.P. and the second time period falling between 13,500 B.P. and 13,000 B.P. The lithics found in the older time period include bifacial tools, blade and microblade technology
Microblade technology
Microblade technology is a period of technological development marked by the creation and use of small stone blades, which are produced by chipping silica-rich stones like chert, quartz, or obsidian. Blades are a specialized type of lithic flake that are at least twice as long as they are wide...
. Only three sites in the Tanana River Valley have reliably dated to the first time period, Swan Point
Swan Point
Swan Point, Alaska is an archaeological site located in the Tanana River Valley, Alaska. R. VanderHoek and T.E. Dilley while under the direction of C.E. Holmes discovered the site in August 1991. The site dates from approximately 14,500 B.P...
, Meade
Meade
Meade Instruments Corporation is a multinational company headquartered in Irvine, California, that manufactures, imports, and distributes telescopes, binoculars, spotting scopes, microscopes, CCD cameras and telescope accessories for the consumer market. It is the world's largest manufacturer of...
and Broken Mammoth. The Broken Mammoth site can be considered a part of the Nenana complex of tool manufacturing and techniques.
Holmes categorizes the artifacts further naming artifacts following the first time period the Chindadn complex. Chindadn complex distinguishes the second time period from 13,500 B.P. to 13,000 B.P. The lithics from this period are small triangular or teardrop-shaped bifaces, usually made of thin flake and often poorly flaked. The Chindadn complex is inadequately seen at the Broken Mammoth site; only a few flakes and bones are directly dated to within this time period with no microblades being found yet at this time.
The Transitional Period followed the Beringian Period from 13,000 B.P. to 9,500 B.P. Two types of Chindadn points are associated with this time period, Chindadn point two being triangular shaped and Chindadn point three having a concave shaped base. Points found at Broken Mammoth of these two type date to approximately 12,100 B.P. Radiocarbon dating of charcoal from hearths found at the site date to approximately to 10,290 B.P. and 12,270 B.P. At other Tanana River Valley sites such as Swan Point and Healey Lake, microblades were also found with these sites but curiously enough not at Broken Mammoth. The reasons for the absence of microblade technology of this time period at Broken Mammoth remain unclear.
The remains of several hearth
Hearth
In common historic and modern usage, a hearth is a brick- or stone-lined fireplace or oven often used for cooking and/or heating. For centuries, the hearth was considered an integral part of a home, often its central or most important feature...
s have been found at Broken Mammoth with the radiocarbon dating of the charcoal providing sound evidence for the age of the site. A shallow pit hearth feature was excavated with a radiocarbon date of approximately 4524 years ago and is associated with several flakes and obsidian
Obsidian
Obsidian is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed as an extrusive igneous rock.It is produced when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimum crystal growth...
microblades. This hearth demonstrates that there was some occupation near the bluff’s edge at the site. A second hearth radiocarbon dated to about 7,600 years ago has evidence of hearthstones, suggesting occupation for an extended period of time. Two more and (possibly a third) hearths, radio carbon dated from 9,690 years ago; 10,270 years ago; and 10,790 years ago respectively, have been found at the site clearly associated with hearthstones with lithics and the remains of fauna excavated around them. This indicates the occupants stayed at this site for some time, long enough to use the hearths multiple times.
As at other Tanana River Valley sites such as Swan Point, Meade and Healey Lake artifacts and stone tools found at Broken Mammoth are relatively infrequent. However the artifacts that have been found have provided keen insight into the history of the occupation of the Tanana River Valley.
Artifacts found at the Broken Mammoth site in Cultural Zone 1 include retouched flakes, end and side scrapers, points and point fragments, flake burins, burin spalls, microblades and microblade cores. The materials that these artifacts were made from include rhyolite
Rhyolite
This page is about a volcanic rock. For the ghost town see Rhyolite, Nevada, and for the satellite system, see Rhyolite/Aquacade.Rhyolite is an igneous, volcanic rock, of felsic composition . It may have any texture from glassy to aphanitic to porphyritic...
, chalcedony
Chalcedony
Chalcedony is a cryptocrystalline form of silica, composed of very fine intergrowths of the minerals quartz and moganite. These are both silica minerals, but they differ in that quartz has a trigonal crystal structure, while moganite is monoclinic...
, chert
Chert
Chert is a fine-grained silica-rich microcrystalline, cryptocrystalline or microfibrous sedimentary rock that may contain small fossils. It varies greatly in color , but most often manifests as gray, brown, grayish brown and light green to rusty red; its color is an expression of trace elements...
, basalt
Basalt
Basalt is a common extrusive volcanic rock. It is usually grey to black and fine-grained due to rapid cooling of lava at the surface of a planet. It may be porphyritic containing larger crystals in a fine matrix, or vesicular, or frothy scoria. Unweathered basalt is black or grey...
and obsidian
Obsidian
Obsidian is a naturally occurring volcanic glass formed as an extrusive igneous rock.It is produced when felsic lava extruded from a volcano cools rapidly with minimum crystal growth...
(the latter providing even more evidence towards an even earlier peopling of North America.) The obsidian that comprised some of the artifacts originated from Batza Tatza in northwest Alaska and from the Wrangall Mountains in east Alaska. This implies that older sites must exist because the raw materials must have been obtained and then distributed to other regions through trade and interaction. Until these sites are discovered we will not know when the occupation of the Beringian straits began, until then Broken Mammoth establishes the earliest date between 11,000 B.P. and 12,000 B.P.
Other artifacts from Cultural Zone 1 include a nearly complete lanceolate point.
Cultural Zone 2 has only produced a few flakes, fire-broken rocks and hearthstones though there is the possibility that microblades could be excavated closer to the bluff edge.
Excavations at Cultural Zone 3 at the site have yielded many tiny flakes, retouched flakes, larger biface fragments, points and point fragment, hammers made of quartz
Quartzite
Quartzite is a hard metamorphic rock which was originally sandstone. Sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure usually related to tectonic compression within orogenic belts. Pure quartzite is usually white to gray, though quartzites often occur in various shades of pink...
, and anvils. A small-eyed bone needle was found associated with a hearth that radiocarbon dates to approximately 10,300 B.P. The bone needle suggests that the occupants used this site to process resources, using skins to make clothing.
Debris from the making of tools has been found at Cultural Zone 4. The debris is composed of rhyolite, basalt, obsidian, chert and quartzite, implying that the occupants of the site carried out some manufacturing and or repair of tools. Artifacts at this zone are largely incomplete but include retouched flakes, scrapers, large a quartz chopper/scraper/plane. Also found at this zone are several ivory tusk fragments with scratches that could have come from stone tools. One tusk fragment has a stone microchip embedded in one of the scratches bolstering this theory. A cache was also found with ivory artifacts, two points, and a possible handle. One of the ivory fragments from this cache was radiocarbon dated to approximately 15,800 B.P. The age of the ivory suggests that it was scavenged by the occupants from a much older kill site as opposed to the inhabitants killing and processing the mammoth themselves.
Significance
The discovery of the Broken Mammoth site establishes that human occupation of central Alaska began sometime before 11,000 B.P. There is evidence to suggest that humans occupied parts of central Alaska before 13,500 B.P. with the possibility that people lived in the region even earlier. The artifacts discovered at Broken Mammoth suggest earlier occupation in northwest and east Alaska as evident by the presence of obsidian materials. The absence of microblades in the lower loess levels at the site suggests that occupants of the site predated microblade technology. However Holmes argues that the absence of the technology at the site does not prove it did not exist during that time period as comparable sites do suggest such technology. Until The Broken Mammoth site offers excellent preservation of remains of the animals, providing archaeologists insight into the hunting methods and food resources utilized by the early peoples in North America.Further reading
Dixon, E. James. Quest for the Origins of the First Americans. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1993. ISBN- 0-8263-1480-5Hoffecker, John F. A Prehistory of the North: Human Settlement of the Higher Latitudes. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers UP, 2005. ISBN- 0-8135-3468-2
West, Frederick Hadleigh., and Constance F. West. American Beginnings: the Prehistory and Palaeoecology of Beringia. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1996 ISBN- 0-226-89399-5