Arctic Cooperation and Politics
Encyclopedia
Arctic cooperation and politics are partially coordinated via the Arctic Council
, composed of the eight Arctic nations of the United States of America, Canada
, Iceland
, Norway
, Sweden
, Finland
, Russia
, and Denmark
with Greenland
and The Faroe Islands. The dominant governmental power in Arctic policy resides within the executive offices, legislative bodies, and implementing agencies of the eight Arctic nations, and to a lesser extent other nations, such as United Kingdom, Germany, European Union and China. Naturally, NGOs and Academia play a large part in Arctic policy. Also important are inter-governmental bodies such as the United Nations
(especially as relates to the Law of the Sea Treaty) and NATO.
Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty and defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection. Though several boundary and resource disputes in the Arctic remain unsolved, there is remarkable conformity of stated policy directives among Arctic nations and a broad consensus toward peace and cooperation in the region. Obstacles that remain include United States non-ratification of the UNCLOS
and the harmonizing of all UNCLOS territorial claims (most notably ownership of the Lomonosov Ridge
); the dispute over the Northwest Passage
; and securing agreements on regulations regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters.
The Arctic Council membership includes the eight Arctic nations and organizations representing six indigenous populations. It operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes. (Although the Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement
was signed in May 2011, the Council's first binding treaty). A more robust Arctic Council with decision-making power on pan-Arctic resource and other issues has been proposed.
Arctic Council Working Groups:
• Arctic Monitoring & Assessment Programme (AMAP) http://amap.no
• Conservation of Arctic Flora & Fauna (CAFF)
• Emergency Prevention, Preparedness & Response (EPPR)
• Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME)
• Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG)
• Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP)
In Tromsø, Norway on April 29, 2009, Arctic Council ministers approved a task force to create an international Search & Rescue (SAR) instrument for the Arctic by the next meeting in 2011. In Nuuk, Greenland on May 12, 2011, ministers signed a Search & Rescue agreement, the Arctic Council's first law-bound treaty.
On January 9, 2009, President Bush signed National Security Presidential Directive (NSPD)-66 on Arctic Region Policy, a collaborative effort replacing the Clinton era Arctic policy directive. NSPD-66 is currently the active Arctic policy playbook being pursued by the Obama Administration and its Departments.
The U.S. Arctic Policy Group is a federal interagency working group comprising those agencies with programs and/or involvement in research and monitoring, land and natural resources management, environmental protection, human health, transportation and policy making in the Arctic. The APG is chaired by the Department of State and meets monthly to develop and implement U.S. programs
and policies in the Arctic, including those relevant to the activities of the Arctic
Council.
State Department’s Office of Ocean and Polar Affairs (OPA) is a part of the State Department’s Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (OES). OPA is responsible for formulating and implementing U.S. policy on international issues concerning the oceans, the Arctic, and Antarctica.
On August 23, 2010, Canada's Prime Minister Stephen Harper said protection of Canada's sovereignty over its northern regions was its number one and "non-negotiable priority" in Arctic policy. Canada has slated $109 million, to be spent before 2014, for research to substantiate extended continental shelf claims.
Canada's Arctic policy priorities are: to try to resolve boundary issues; to secure international recognition for the full extent of Canada's extended continental shelf; and to address Arctic governance and related emerging issues, such as public safety.
G-7 finance ministers met in Nunavut in February 2010.
Despite having lost 18 percent of its population between 1989 and 2002, the Russian Arctic
still contains 80 percent of the 4 million people who inhabit the Arctic region.
members have joined the EU (Denmark in 1973 and Sweden & Finland in 1995). The European Union’s application to become a “permanent observer” in the Arctic Council was blocked in 2009 by Canada in response to the European Union’s ban on the importation of seal products.
Several other treaties govern the Arctic region:
In 2001 Russia was the first Arctic littoral state to submit a request to the UN to extend its continental shelf border beyond 200-miles. The UN turned down the request for lack of evidence, and Russia now plans to file again in 2013.
Denmark and Canada dispute ownership of Hans Island in the Nares Straight between Ellesmere Island and Greenland.
On April 27, 2010, Norway and Russia announced an end to their 40-year arctic border dispute in the Barents Sea. Future joint energy development is expected.
Maritime boundaries
between Canada and the United States in the Beaufort Sea and between Canada and Denmark in Baffin Bay remain under dispute.
Denmark (Greenland), Russia and Canada have competing territorial claims over the sovereignty of the Lomonosov Ridge, an underwater mountain chain in the central Arctic Ocean.
Arctic Council
The Arctic Council is a high-level intergovernmental forum which addresses issues faced by the Arctic governments and the indigenous people of the Arctic.- History of the Arctic Council :...
, composed of the eight Arctic nations of the United States of America, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, Iceland
Iceland
Iceland , described as the Republic of Iceland, is a Nordic and European island country in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Iceland also refers to the main island of the country, which contains almost all the population and almost all the land area. The country has a population...
, Norway
Norway
Norway , officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, and the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of and a population of about 4.9 million...
, Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
, Finland
Finland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...
, Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
, and Denmark
Denmark
Denmark is a Scandinavian country in Northern Europe. The countries of Denmark and Greenland, as well as the Faroe Islands, constitute the Kingdom of Denmark . It is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. Denmark...
with Greenland
Greenland
Greenland is an autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark, located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe for...
and The Faroe Islands. The dominant governmental power in Arctic policy resides within the executive offices, legislative bodies, and implementing agencies of the eight Arctic nations, and to a lesser extent other nations, such as United Kingdom, Germany, European Union and China. Naturally, NGOs and Academia play a large part in Arctic policy. Also important are inter-governmental bodies such as the United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
(especially as relates to the Law of the Sea Treaty) and NATO.
Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty and defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection. Though several boundary and resource disputes in the Arctic remain unsolved, there is remarkable conformity of stated policy directives among Arctic nations and a broad consensus toward peace and cooperation in the region. Obstacles that remain include United States non-ratification of the UNCLOS
United States non-ratification of the UNCLOS
The United States was among the nations that participated in the third United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea, which took place from 1973 through 1982 and resulted in the international treaty known as the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea . The United States also...
and the harmonizing of all UNCLOS territorial claims (most notably ownership of the Lomonosov Ridge
Lomonosov Ridge
The Lomonosov Ridge is an unusual underwater ridge of continental crust in the Arctic Ocean. It spans 1800 km from the New Siberian Islands, as it is part of Eurasia, over the central part of the ocean to Ellesmere Island of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The width of the Lomonosov Ridge varies...
); the dispute over the Northwest Passage
Northwest Passage
The Northwest Passage is a sea route through the Arctic Ocean, along the northern coast of North America via waterways amidst the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans...
; and securing agreements on regulations regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters.
The Arctic Council membership includes the eight Arctic nations and organizations representing six indigenous populations. It operates on consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes. (Although the Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement
Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement
The Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic, or in short the Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement, is an international treaty concluded among the member states of the Arctic Council – Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the...
was signed in May 2011, the Council's first binding treaty). A more robust Arctic Council with decision-making power on pan-Arctic resource and other issues has been proposed.
The Arctic Council
Members include the eight Arctic Nations: Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and United States. Permanent participants are these six indigenous groups:- Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC) The ICC is a multinational NGO representing the 160,000 Inuit people living in the United States, Canada, Greenland, and Russia.
- Gwich’in Council International (GCI)
- Aleut International Association (AIA)
- Nordic Saami Council
- Arctic Athabascan Council (AAC)
- Russian Assn of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON)
Arctic Council Working Groups:
• Arctic Monitoring & Assessment Programme (AMAP) http://amap.no
• Conservation of Arctic Flora & Fauna (CAFF)
• Emergency Prevention, Preparedness & Response (EPPR)
• Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME)
• Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG)
• Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP)
In Tromsø, Norway on April 29, 2009, Arctic Council ministers approved a task force to create an international Search & Rescue (SAR) instrument for the Arctic by the next meeting in 2011. In Nuuk, Greenland on May 12, 2011, ministers signed a Search & Rescue agreement, the Arctic Council's first law-bound treaty.
Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region (CPAR)
CPAR is a parliamentary body comprising delegations appointed by the national parliaments of the Arctic states (Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, U.S.) and the European Parliament. The conference also includes Indigenous peoples groups as Permanent Participants, and observers. The conference meets every two years, last in Oslo June 7, 2010. Between conferences the Arctic parliamentary cooperation is carried on by a Standing Committee of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region, which started its activities in 1994.The Five Arctic Ocean Coastal States (informal group)
Foreign ministers of the five Arctic Ocean coastal states (Russia, US, Canada, Norway, and Denmark (Greenland)) met:- May 27 – 29, 2008 in Greenland: Ilulissat Declaration. (This meeting is known as the Arctic Ocean ConferenceArctic Ocean ConferenceThe inaugural Arctic Ocean Conference was held in Ilulissat, Greenland May 27 — May 29, 2008. Five countries, Canada, Denmark, Norway, Russia and the United States, discussed key issues relating to the Arctic Ocean. The meeting was significant because of its plans for environmental regulation,...
.) - March 29, 2010 in Quebec: Chair Summary
International Maritime Organization
The IMO was established in 1948 to develop and maintain a comprehensive regulatory framework for shipping. The IMO spent years negotiating an Arctic Code for shipping, but ultimately downgraded the Code to a set of voluntary Guidelines for Ships Operating in Arctic Ice-Covered Waters (adopted in 2002). The Guidelines provide uniform safety, pollution prevention, and security standards for ocean carriers.The World Winter Cities Association for Mayors (WWCAM)
The World Winter Cities Association for Mayors (WWCAM) is a network of international winter cities that provides opportunities to learn about winter technologies and experiences under the slogan “Winter is a Resource and an Asset.” The Association was formerly known as the Northern Intercity Conference of Mayors and was founded by the city of Sapporo in 1981. The 15th World Winter Cities Conference for Mayors will be held in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia in January or February 2012.The Nordic Council
The Nordic Council is the Nordic inter-parliamentary body, while the Nordic Council of Ministers is the inter-governmental body. Members include: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, and the autonomous territories of Åland Islands (Finland), Faroe Islands (Denmark) and Greenland (Denmark).Barents Euro-Arctic Council
Barents Euro-Arctic Council (BEAC) is the forum for intergovernmental cooperation in the Barents Region established in 1993 to "provide impetus to existing cooperation and consider new initiatives and proposals".Pacific NorthWest Economic Region: Arctic Caucus
The PNWER Arctic Caucus formed informally in November 2010 as a loose alliance between Alaska and the Canadian Provinces of Northwest Territories and the Yukon. Members include legislators, government officials, business and non-profit leaders. The group plans to work with the Arctic Council, Inuit Circumpolar Council, the Northern Forum and others to increase the opportunities for the state/territorial governments “To provide a forum to share information and develop regional policies related to the Arctic and Arctic development.” The Caucus will also work to deliver a harmonized message to their respective federal governments on common needs of the region. The Caucus met Dec. 1 and 2 in Barrow, Alaska; at the PNWER Summit in Portland, Oregon July 2011; and in Yellowknife, Northwest Territories August 17-19, 2011.United States of America (Alaska)
Main goals in U.S. Arctic Policy are: National security; Protecting the Arctic environment and wildlife; Ensuring economic development is environmentally sustainable; Strengthening cooperative institutions among the eight Arctic nations; Including the Arctic’s indigenous communities in decisions; and Improving scientific monitoring and research.On January 9, 2009, President Bush signed National Security Presidential Directive (NSPD)-66 on Arctic Region Policy, a collaborative effort replacing the Clinton era Arctic policy directive. NSPD-66 is currently the active Arctic policy playbook being pursued by the Obama Administration and its Departments.
The U.S. Arctic Policy Group is a federal interagency working group comprising those agencies with programs and/or involvement in research and monitoring, land and natural resources management, environmental protection, human health, transportation and policy making in the Arctic. The APG is chaired by the Department of State and meets monthly to develop and implement U.S. programs
and policies in the Arctic, including those relevant to the activities of the Arctic
Council.
State Department’s Office of Ocean and Polar Affairs (OPA) is a part of the State Department’s Bureau of Oceans and International Environmental and Scientific Affairs (OES). OPA is responsible for formulating and implementing U.S. policy on international issues concerning the oceans, the Arctic, and Antarctica.
Canada (NWT, Nunavut, and Yukon)
Canada has more Arctic land mass than any country.On August 23, 2010, Canada's Prime Minister Stephen Harper said protection of Canada's sovereignty over its northern regions was its number one and "non-negotiable priority" in Arctic policy. Canada has slated $109 million, to be spent before 2014, for research to substantiate extended continental shelf claims.
Canada's Arctic policy priorities are: to try to resolve boundary issues; to secure international recognition for the full extent of Canada's extended continental shelf; and to address Arctic governance and related emerging issues, such as public safety.
- Canada’s Arctic Foreign Policy Pamphlet
- Statement on Canada's Arctic foreign policy: Exercising sovereignty and promoting Canada's Northern Strategy abroad
G-7 finance ministers met in Nunavut in February 2010.
Norway
The Norwegian Polar Institute in Tromsø is hosting the Arctic Council Secretariat from 2007–2013.Finland
The Finnish Arctic Strategy was released June 4, 2010 and concentrates on seven priority areas: security, environment, economy, infrastructure, arctic indigenous residents, institutions and the European Union.Russia
In 2007, Russia planted a flag on the Arctic Ocean seafloor beneath the North Pole to claim territory—a claim Canada and other Arctic nations rebuked. In 2009, a Russian policy report foresaw potential for military conflict over Arctic resources.Despite having lost 18 percent of its population between 1989 and 2002, the Russian Arctic
still contains 80 percent of the 4 million people who inhabit the Arctic region.
European Union
If Accession of Iceland to the European Union occurs, the EU will increase its Arctic influence and possibly gain permanent observer status in the Arctic Council. The Northern Dimension of European Union policy, established in the late 1990s, intended to deal with issues concerning western Russia, as well as to increase general cooperation among the EU, Iceland and Norway. It has since become a multilateral, equal partnership among the EU, Iceland, Norway and Russia. Canada and the United States are observers to the partnership. Three Nordic CouncilNordic Council
The Nordic Council is a geo-political, inter-parliamentary forum for co-operation between the Nordic countries. It was established following World War II and its first concrete result was the introduction in 1952 of a common labour market and free movement across borders without passports for the...
members have joined the EU (Denmark in 1973 and Sweden & Finland in 1995). The European Union’s application to become a “permanent observer” in the Arctic Council was blocked in 2009 by Canada in response to the European Union’s ban on the importation of seal products.
China
Chinese Arctic and Antarctic AdministrationSouth Korea
South Korea has an icebreaker and is building another. The country is investing in LNG infrastructure near Inuvik, where LNG will be shipped from the Beaufort Sea and south through the Bering Strait.Other Arctic treaties
- The Svalbard TreatySvalbard TreatyThe Treaty between Norway, The United States of America, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Ireland and the British overseas Dominions and Sweden concerning Spitsbergen signed in Paris 9th February 1920, commonly called the Svalbard Treaty or the Spitsbergen Treaty...
of 1920 among initially fourteen countries governs the political and economic status of SvalbardSvalbardSvalbard is an archipelago in the Arctic, constituting the northernmost part of Norway. It is located north of mainland Europe, midway between mainland Norway and the North Pole. The group of islands range from 74° to 81° north latitude , and from 10° to 35° east longitude. Spitsbergen is the...
. - The Arctic Cooperation Agreement of 1988 between the United States and Canada regulates bilateral cooperation regarding the Northwest PassageNorthwest PassageThe Northwest Passage is a sea route through the Arctic Ocean, along the northern coast of North America via waterways amidst the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans...
, but does not resolve the disagreement between the two countries about the legal status of the passage. - The Arctic Search and Rescue AgreementArctic Search and Rescue AgreementThe Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic, or in short the Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement, is an international treaty concluded among the member states of the Arctic Council – Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the...
of 2011, concluded by the Arctic Council member states, coordinates search and rescueSearch and rescueSearch and rescue is the search for and provision of aid to people who are in distress or imminent danger.The general field of search and rescue includes many specialty sub-fields, mostly based upon terrain considerations...
in the Arctic.
Territorial Claims
The five Arctic littoral states have sovereignty within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) 200 nautical miles from their coasts, but the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) allows them to extend their economic zone if they can prove that the Arctic seafloor’s underwater ridges are a geological extension of the country’s own continental shelf.In 2001 Russia was the first Arctic littoral state to submit a request to the UN to extend its continental shelf border beyond 200-miles. The UN turned down the request for lack of evidence, and Russia now plans to file again in 2013.
Denmark and Canada dispute ownership of Hans Island in the Nares Straight between Ellesmere Island and Greenland.
On April 27, 2010, Norway and Russia announced an end to their 40-year arctic border dispute in the Barents Sea. Future joint energy development is expected.
Maritime boundaries
Maritime boundary
Maritime boundary is a conceptual means of division of the water surface of the planet into maritime areas that are defined through surrounding physical geography or by human geography. As such it usually includes areas of exclusive national rights over the mineral and biological resources,...
between Canada and the United States in the Beaufort Sea and between Canada and Denmark in Baffin Bay remain under dispute.
Denmark (Greenland), Russia and Canada have competing territorial claims over the sovereignty of the Lomonosov Ridge, an underwater mountain chain in the central Arctic Ocean.
Shipping & Transport
Recently completed Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment. Predictions for ice-free Arctic Ocean conditions in the summer range from 2013 to 2060, the consensus being for part of the summer by 2030. In November 2011, a Cambridge University study predicted an Arctic free of summer ice by 2015. No models predict winter sea-ice cover will disappear during this century.Fisheries
Key Arctic fishery regimes include:- The International Commission on the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT)
- The bilateral (Canada and the United States) International Pacific Halibut Commission (IPHC)
- The bilateral (Russian Federation and the US) Intergovernmental Consultative Committee (ICC)
- The Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO)
- The North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organization (NASCO)
- The North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC)
- The North Pacific Anadromous Fish Commission (NPAFC)
- The Norway-Russian Federation Fisheries Commission
- The Western and Central Pacific Ocean Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), and
- The Convention on the Conservation and Management of the Pollock Resources in the Central Bering Sea (CBS)
See also
- Arctic Climate Impact AssessmentArctic Climate Impact AssessmentThe Arctic Climate Impact Assessment is a study describing the ongoing climate change in the Arctic and its consequences: rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, unprecedented melting of the Greenland ice sheet, and many impacts on ecosystems, animals, and people...
(ACIA) - Arctic Environmental Protection StrategyArctic Environmental Protection StrategyThe Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy is a multilateral, non-binding agreement among Arctic states aimed at Arctic environment protection. Discussions began in 1989, with the AEPS adopted in June 1991 by Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the USSR, and the United States...
- United States Arctic Research Commission
- International Arctic Research CenterInternational Arctic Research CenterThe International Arctic Research Center, or IARC, established in 1999, is a research institution focused on integrating and coordinating study of climate change in the Arctic. The primary partners in IARC are Japan and the United States...
- International Arctic Science CommitteeInternational Arctic Science CommitteeThe International Arctic Science Committee is a non-governmental organization which is composed of international science groups participating in arctic science research. IASC is an International Scientific Associate of ICSU, and was established in 1990...
- Cooperative Institute for Arctic ResearchCooperative Institute for Arctic ResearchThe Cooperative Institute for Arctic Research is designed to be a focal point for interactions between the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration /Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Research and the Arctic research community through the University of Alaska for research related to the...
- Northern Sea RouteNorthern Sea RouteThe Northern Sea Route is a shipping lane officially defined by Russian legislation from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean specifically running along the Russian Arctic coast from Murmansk on the Barents Sea, along Siberia, to the Bering Strait and Far East. The entire route lies in Arctic...
- Northwest PassageNorthwest PassageThe Northwest Passage is a sea route through the Arctic Ocean, along the northern coast of North America via waterways amidst the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans...
- Arctic BridgeArctic bridgeThe Arctic Bridge or Arctic Sea Bridge is a seasonal sea route linking Russia to Canada, specifically the Russian port of Murmansk to the Hudson Bay port of Churchill, Manitoba. Churchill is the principal seaport on Canada's northern coast and has rail and air connections to the rest of Canada...
- Nordic CouncilNordic CouncilThe Nordic Council is a geo-political, inter-parliamentary forum for co-operation between the Nordic countries. It was established following World War II and its first concrete result was the introduction in 1952 of a common labour market and free movement across borders without passports for the...
- West Nordic CouncilWest Nordic CouncilThe West Nordic Council is a cooperation forum of the parliaments and governments of Greenland, the Faroe Islands and Iceland. It was initially founded in 1985 as the West Nordic Parliamentarian Council of Cooperation but the name was changed in 1997. The council comprises six MPs from each...
- Chinese Arctic and Antarctic AdministrationChinese Arctic and Antarctic AdministrationThe Chinese Arctic and Antarctic Administration is a Beijing-based agency of the People's Republic of China's State Oceanic Administration...
- Svalbard Global Seed VaultSvalbard Global Seed VaultThe Svalbard Global Seed Vault is a secure seedbank located on the Norwegian island of Spitsbergen near the town of Longyearbyen in the remote Arctic Svalbard archipelago, about from the North Pole. The facility preserves a wide variety of plant seeds in an underground cavern. The seeds are...
- Territorial claims in the ArcticTerritorial claims in the ArcticUnder international law, no country currently owns the North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The five surrounding Arctic states, Russia, the United States, Canada, Norway and Denmark , are limited to an exclusive economic zone of adjacent to their coasts.Upon ratification...
- Arctic - Section: International Cooperation and Politics
- Bering Strait crossing
- Nordic modelNordic modelThe Nordic model refers to the economic and social models of the Nordic countries . This particular adaptation of the mixed market economy is characterised by "universalist" welfare states , which are aimed specifically at enhancing individual autonomy, ensuring the universal provision of basic human...
- Nordic Investment BankNordic Investment BankThe Nordic Investment Bank is an international financial institution founded in the mid-1970s by the five Nordic countries: Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. In 2005, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania became members of the Bank. NIB’s headquarters are located in Helsinki, Finland...
External links
- Arctic Centre, Rovaniemi Arctic research
- Arctic Council
- Arctic Geopolitics - Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies
- United States Arctic Research Commission
- The Conference of Parliamentarians of the Arctic Region
- United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
- Arctic Portal
- U.S. State Department’s Office of Ocean and Polar Affairs (OPA)
- The Arctic Human Development Report
- Barents Euro-Arctic Council
- Eye on the Arctic