The golden age for Jews in Spain is considered to be under the relative lax rule of the Muslim Caliphate

Caliphate

The term caliphate, "dominion of a caliph " , refers to the first system of government established in Islam and represented the political unity of the Muslim Ummah...

s in al-Andalus

Al-Andalus

Al-Andalus was the Arabic name given to a nation and territorial region also commonly referred to as Moorish Iberia. The name describes parts of the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania governed by Muslims , at various times in the period between 711 and 1492, although the territorial boundaries...

. It was generally a time when Jews were free to conduct business, participate in government, and practice their religion without fear of persecution. However, to say that Al-Andalus was a time when Jews were never persecution would certainly be an oversimplification. The Almohads were an Islamic Caliphate that persecuted those who did not share their religious beliefs. During their rule of the southern half of Iberia, Jews and Christians both were subjected to religious and political persecution. Since their rise to prominence on Iberia in the eleventh century to their fall in the twelfth, they brought religious extremism that made it difficult for anyone who was not a fundamentalist Muslim to achieve any sort of success. The preceding Almoravid dynasty, while more repressive than some governments in Al-Andalus, was not violently repressive. These sentiments of acceptance did not at all carry over with the change in regime. The Almohads' religious fundamentalism caused a massive emigration of Jews and Christians from southern Iberia to the Christian north and North Africa, specifically Egypt

Egypt

Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...

. Traditionally we choose to look mostly at the golden age of cultural interaction when talking about Al-Andalus, however the period of the Almoravids and especially Almohads also needs to be mentioned in any history of the peninsula. They did not have the glory of the Golden Age of Jews in Spain, but this does not change their importance. The religious climate before they came to power, their rise to power, the changes they instituted, how those changes affected Spain, and how they affected their eventual fall from power are all important aspects of interactions between the Almohads and different cultures.

Religious climate before Almohads

During its golden age, Spain was open to a good deal of religious tolerance. It started to go down with the dynasty that came directly before the Almohads, the Almoravids. Like many of the Arab rulers of Spain, the Almoravids were a religious movement that had emigrated from North Africa. They established control over most of the southern half of Spain and Portugal. For the most part the Almoravids let other people of the book, or other religions that held the Old Testament as a holy text, practice their religion freely. However they, the Almoravids, were more puritanical than previous Muslim rulers of Spain. The Almoravids were more traditional in their beliefs than any Islamic caliphate that came before them. Their rise to power is considered when the golden age of Jews in Spain started to decline, however, their rule was nowhere as harsh as what was about to hit the peninsula. One major cause for stress in this time was the ongoing conflicts with the Christian kingdoms in the north. The reconquista

Reconquista

The Reconquista was a period of almost 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms succeeded in retaking the Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula broadly known as Al-Andalus...

 was presenting a real threat of driving Islam off of Iberia, and many Christians living in the south were accused of collaborating with the invaders from the north. Religious tension was at an all time high, due more to changing political climate with the Christian invasion from the north. While the Christians were under serious pressure due to the start of the reconquista, the Jews were not in nearly as much danger. However, the dangerous change in religious attitudes was only a signal of something to come, and that something would cross over from North Africa, bringing with it religious fundamentalism and a ruthless attitude.

Rise to power

When the Almohads crossed over into Spain, conditions deteriorated for non fundamental Muslims. Where the Almoravids persecuted mainly Christians for mainly political reasons and protection from the rapidly growing reconquista movement, the Almohads had more genuine religious motivation, which made their actions all the more dangerous. Like the Almovids, the Almohads crossed over into Spain from North Africa. They were led by Ibn Tumart

Ibn Tumart

Abu Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Tumart was a Berber religious Muslim scholar, teacher and later a political leader from the Masmuda tribe federation. He founded the Berber Almohad dynasty. He is also known as El-Mahdi in reference to his prophesied redeeming...

, an extreme religious fundamentalist who interpreted the Quran in its most literal sense. He was much more conservative than the majority of Muslims in the world at this time. Tumart was an intelligent and charismatic man. He is the godfather of the Almohad movement, and all rulers afterwards were considered his spiritual descendents. He claimed to be a direct descendent of Muhammad on his father’s side. He was also well educated, having studied across the Islamic world in Alexandria, Cordoba, Mecca, and Baghdad. After so much religious education, he became convinced that it was his destiny to reform Islam. His genuine enthusiasm, combined with his unquestionable fanaticism and his unique worldview, allowed him to get a devoted group of followers. His mission was one that held appeal for religious extremists, to return the Muslim world to the spiritual purity it enjoyed under Mohammed. The Berbers could be a people who were prone to follow particularly charismatic leaders, making them a perfect group of devotees for Ibn to gain. He attempted to provide reform to Muslim North Africa, but he was largely rejected because his reforms were generally considered too extreme. He offered no other choice but death to those who refused to follow his religious example. When the leader who founds a dynasty proves that he is so inflexibility with his beliefs, it is not good news for those who are not willing to conform. He presented a different view on religion, a view that would change the religious interactions by bringing outright hostility on the Iberian peninsula. With the Almohads having such a leader as their founding members, it is little surprise that when they crossed over from Berber North Africa they were on the extreme end of the religious spectrum. They spread from merely a few villages in the high atlas to controlling most of the mountain range. Soon they spread across the continent to as far away as Egypt. To top off their meteoric rise, in 1146 they crossed over the Strait of Gibraltar

Strait of Gibraltar

The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Spain in Europe from Morocco in Africa. The name comes from Gibraltar, which in turn originates from the Arabic Jebel Tariq , albeit the Arab name for the Strait is Bab el-Zakat or...

 into Iberia. Their rule quickly spread across a new continent. In Spain they were dominant in the southern half of the peninsula. At their height they were one of the most powerful forces in the world. Once they took control over the peninsula, they cemented their presence by moving their capital from the high atlas village of Tin Mal to the Spanish city of Seville

Seville

Seville is the artistic, historic, cultural, and financial capital of southern Spain. It is the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia and of the province of Seville. It is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir, with an average elevation of above sea level...

. They gained power quickly. They were a determined military and economic force, defeating Christian forces primarily composed of Castilians at the Battle of Alarcos

Battle of Alarcos

Battle of Alarcos , was a battle between the Almohads led by Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur and King Alfonso VIII of Castile. It resulted in the defeat of the Castilian forces and their subsequent retreat to Toledo whereas the Almohads conquered back Trujillo, Montánchez and Talavera.-Background:In...

. This marked the height of the Almohad Caliphate. For decades the Muslim and Christian forces would be in a virtual stalemate, with neither side making significant territorial gains. Cuenca

Cuenca, Spain

-History:When the Iberian peninsula was part of the Roman Empire there were several important settlements in the province, such as Segóbriga, Ercávica and Gran Valeria...

 was a city that was originally controlled by Islamic forces, but was conquered by king Alfonso II.

Alfonso II of Aragon

Alfonso II or Alfons I ; Huesca, 1-25 March 1157 – 25 April 1196), called the Chaste or the Troubadour, was the King of Aragon and Count of Barcelona from 1164 until his death. He was the son of Ramon Berenguer IV of Barcelona and Petronilla of Aragon and the first King of Aragon who was...

  It was the site of numerous conflicts between the two religions, as the Almohads attempted to regain control for years after.

Reforms

Throughout their reign, the Almohads were a prime example of theocracy. They were founded by a quasi prophet, and their leaders afterwards took on a fundamentalist political approach. Over time they lost some of the extreme religious zeal. Moderation usually comes after the death of leader like Ibn Tumart

Ibn Tumart

Abu Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Tumart was a Berber religious Muslim scholar, teacher and later a political leader from the Masmuda tribe federation. He founded the Berber Almohad dynasty. He is also known as El-Mahdi in reference to his prophesied redeeming...

, but they were still more strict and extreme than any other caliphate that had controlled southern Iberia. They sought to create new religious elite, governed and educated by the Almohads. The Almohads, once they took control of Southern Spain and Portugal, introduced a number of very strict religious laws. They made the Quran even more important in law than it had been under previous regimes. Even before they took complete control in the 1170s, they had begun removing non Muslims from positions of power. Although the Almovids had been forced by the growing hostility with the Christian north to take away some of the liberal religious freedom of previous caliphates, the Almohads completely overwhelmed them with their religious zeal. Jews and Christians were given no choice but to convert to Islam, with conversion or death being the mantra. Captured Christians were not always given the most pleasant treatment. There was one report of fifty-three captured Christians being beheaded. Beheading was the favored means of execution among the Almohads. Sometimes they even beheaded the remains of dead Christian warriors. The bodies of important Christian rulers were especially susceptible to this type of treatment. The heads were occasionally sent to important urban centers of the Almohads, such as Marrakesh in Morocco and Seville

Seville

Seville is the artistic, historic, cultural, and financial capital of southern Spain. It is the capital of the autonomous community of Andalusia and of the province of Seville. It is situated on the plain of the River Guadalquivir, with an average elevation of above sea level...

. Heads belonging to important individuals were hung on display to serve as a warning to the entire city. This type of behavior was utterly unprecedented in previous Muslim caliphates. However, the Almohads were on a self declared Jihad

Jihad

Jihad , an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād translates as a noun meaning "struggle". Jihad appears 41 times in the Quran and frequently in the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God ". A person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid; the plural is...

, and they were willing to use brutal techniques to back up their holy war. The fact that many Christians eventually submitted to the power of the Almohads or left areas where they were in control eventually brought an end to the practice. What made this practice so interesting is that it was unique to the Almohads, with no other Muslim dynasties partaking in this type of violence. Many Christians and Jews fled cities controlled by the Almohads rather than be subjected to the strict religious policies. At their peak in the 1170s, the Almohads had firm control over most of Islamic Spain, and were not threatened by the Christian forces to the north. Since up to this point the leaders of Islamic Caliphates had generally been very lax with their treatment of Jews, there were many important centers of Jewish Learning in Spain. When the Almohads took control, many Jews were killed in the invasion. Death was most extreme form of persecution; however it was certainly not the only one. Jews in business and politics were much more severely restricted than they had been under previous Muslim rulers in Al-Andalus. Christians and Jews were often given an unpleasant ultimatum, conversion or death. Generally, a simple oath was enough of a conversion, although many still saw this as going against their moral code. Believing they were on a divine mission, the overall philosophic goal of the Almohads was to turn Jews into Muslims. Halfhearted oaths were certainly not looked to as ideal, and this brought a lot of problems for the population of Spain. However, the Almohads generally recognized that many of the conversions by Jews were not particularly sincere, which certainly did not help promote unity. They responded to this by imposing severe regulations on the business of former Jews. There were even some more interesting regulations imposed to keep the converted Jewish population recognizable and in line. One ruler, Abu Yusuf Ya'qub

Abu Yusuf Ya'qub

Abu Yusuf Ya'qub ibn Ibrahim al-Ansari al-Kufi was a famous Muslim jurist and one of the founders of the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence. He served as a chief religious judge under the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid. Abu Yusuf wrote Kitab al-Kharaj , which is a basic treatise on the issues...

, set up a strict dress code for Jews living within Almohad territory. Jews had to wear dark blue or black, the traditional colors of mourning in Islam. The next ruler, abu 'Abd-Allah, instituted clothing that has a much more meaningful significance in our culture. Under his reign Jews were required to wear yellow turban

Turban

In English, Turban refers to several types of headwear popularly worn in the Middle East, North Africa, Punjab, Jamaica and Southwest Asia. A commonly used synonym is Pagri, the Indian word for turban.-Styles:...

s and cloaks. This could be seen as a precursor for the yellow stars that signified Jews at even more unfortunate times in their history. While the discrimination was not Holocaust style, it did become unbearable for many living under the Almohads. Many people of different religions were left no choice but to leave their homes and seek religious freedom elsewhere. Some Jews and Christians fled to North Africa to escape the Muslim influence in Spain. Others fled north, to Christian Spain. While this exodus did not decimate the Jewish community living under the Almohads, it certainly kept it from flourishing like it did in the under more lenient regimes a century earlier. It was not just the Jews and Christians who had ideological differences with the Almohads, and it was not just Jews and Christians who were subject to the violence of an extreme regime. The Almohads were more extreme than any other caliphate on a variety of topics, even those related to how Muslims should be allowed to live. No one of any religion was free from the reforms. They prohibited the sale of any alcohol or the construction of musical instruments. Any sort of pork met an emphatic ban. Unless they wore a veil, women were not permitted in the company of men. Even in mosques, any sort of decoration was destroyed, covered up or whitewashed. The sought to not portray god as an image, but rather capture his essence with the simplest decorations. They sought to make the mosques look simple and unadorned, like they did in the days of Mohammed. This was the goal of many of their actions, to make the Islamic world the same is it was during the days of Mohammed. Even the call to prayer was reformed to make it more traditional. Old authorities, especially judges, were removed from positions of power and replaced with those who were loyal to the Almohads. Their extreme actions bred discontentment in even the Muslim community, leading to rebellions in North Africa. Beheadings of Muslims by the Almohads was also part of the unfortunate norm. Violence was perpetrated against anyone who was not in line with the strict religious doctrine of the new caliphate. Many established Muslims resisted the extreme new reforms instituted by the Almohads. Beheading of Muslims were more common than beheading of Christians, leading to a general discontent throughout the population. Beheading was another attempt by the Almohads to revert their religion to an earlier time.

Philosophy

The Almohads had a philosophy that was based more on rules than any sort of deeper understanding. As a judicial system, they looked to the letter of the law rather than the deeper intended purpose of the law. They trained new judges, who were given schooling in both the religious and military arts. They had a very traditional philosophy, one which did not look to any of the reforms past caliphates had attempted to institute. Their beliefs, primarily learned from their charismatic leader Ibn Tumart

Ibn Tumart

Abu Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Tumart was a Berber religious Muslim scholar, teacher and later a political leader from the Masmuda tribe federation. He founded the Berber Almohad dynasty. He is also known as El-Mahdi in reference to his prophesied redeeming...

, are a seemingly random collection of ideas put together whenever they were practical. They sought to return Islam to the way it was during the time of the conservative, violent and very successful Umayyad Caliphate, which in the eighth century had ruled the fifth largest empire ever with a religious bent and an iron fist. They wanted and tried to make the land they controlled holy, a place set apart from the rest of the world. The Almohads sought to set the same cultural precedent. They wanted to make it clear that they were a new empire, distinct from the Almoravids. They even minted new coins, in the shape of a square rather than a circle. They did not even include a date on the coins, as if to demonstrate that the rise of the Almohads was year one of a new era. They saw themselves as true practitioners of Islam, and sought to reform the way it was practiced to make it much more conservative. The Caliph was held as an important religious figure, almost equivalent to a prophet of God. This was his duty, to ensure people under his rule were complying with the teachings of the Quran. This near prophetic status allowed the same Almohad ruler to be in charge of both the interpretation and implementation of Islamic law. Where the preceding Almoravids considered themselves an empire, the Almohads sought to return Spain to the days of the Caliphate. Despite the numerous setbacks toward religious tolerance in the Almohad era, there were still some bright spots for Jews and Christians. One of the most notable was Moshe bin Maymun, more commonly known as Maimonides

Maimonides

Moses ben-Maimon, called Maimonides and also known as Mūsā ibn Maymūn in Arabic, or Rambam , was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the greatest Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages...

, a prominent Jewish philosopher who did most of his work under the Almohads. He was born in Al-Andalus under Almohad rule and spent much of his life under their control. He eventually moved to Egypt however, where there was a more open academic climate. It is also rumored that he was part Arab, allowing him to more freely participate in the affairs of the Almohads. Although they were not able to practice their faith openly, Jews still managed to form an underground core throughout the Caliphate. Philosophy was still an area that was somewhat free of the otherwise vast constraints of the Almohads. Some dialog was permitted on these subjects, and science and mathematics still flourished. However, in most things the Almohads still had a very strict religious philosophy which led to extreme reforms.

End of the dynasty

Like every Muslim dynasty before them the rule of the Almohads came to a sharp end. In what could be considered a turning point in world history, the Almohad caliphate was decisively defeated by the combined Christian forces of Portugal

Kingdom of Portugal

The Kingdom of Portugal was Portugal's general designation under the monarchy. The kingdom was located in the west of the Iberian Peninsula, Europe and existed from 1139 to 1910...

, Castile

Kingdom of Castile

Kingdom of Castile was one of the medieval kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula. It emerged as a political autonomous entity in the 9th century. It was called County of Castile and was held in vassalage from the Kingdom of León. Its name comes from the host of castles constructed in the region...

, and Aragon

Kingdom of Aragon

The Kingdom of Aragon was a medieval and early modern kingdom in the Iberian Peninsula, corresponding to the modern-day autonomous community of Aragon, in Spain...

 at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa

Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa

The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa, known in Arab history as the Battle of Al-Uqab , took place on 16 July 1212 and was an important turning point in the Reconquista and in the medieval history of Spain...

. The battle is recognized as one of the most important events in the reconquista

Reconquista

The Reconquista was a period of almost 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms succeeded in retaking the Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula broadly known as Al-Andalus...

 movement in Spain. Not only was it a decisive defeat of the Muslim forces, it was also one of the first times the fractured Christian kingdoms of the north came together for the common goal of reclaiming the peninsula. The kingdoms involved in the battle were the ones who would play the largest role in the unification of Spain. The Christian victory made it apparent to Jews and Christians as well other Muslims, that the Almohads were rapidly losing power. There was a series of dynastic quarrels after the crushing defeat at Las Navas. In 1230 significant cracks started appearing in Almohad unity. Some towns throughout their area of control attempted, and occasionally succeeded, in breaking off and gaining some level of independence from the Almohades. With no powerful ruler, people started to question their extreme religious dogma. By 1270, they were no longer a force of any significance on the Iberian Peninsula, or anywhere else in the world. After their fall, the extreme religious doctrine that they supported was again no longer a worry for religious minorities. Life for the Jews and the Christians was able to go back to normal. Legal codes were no longer in their extreme forms. One unfortunate holdover for Jews was a law that stated that people who converted to Islam would be put to death if they reconverted. However, laws like this were loosely enforced and easy to get around. Jews were once again able to freely practice art and business. After their fall they enjoyed more personal freedom than under the Almohads, or even than under the Almorvids. The Almohads, unlike many other powerful Muslim groups, were unable to get enough supporters. They had difficulty gaining both new converts and influencing other Muslims. Islam had spread like wildfire across the globe, but they extreme beliefs of the followers of the Almohads made it impractical for non Muslims to cross the line into Islam. Even though it was military successful early in its career, since it was so religiously extreme, it could not draw on a broad base of popular appeal. Many members of the Muslim community were not in sync with the new reforms. This left the popular base fragmented, and unable to cope with the advancing Christian forces of the reconquista

Reconquista

The Reconquista was a period of almost 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms succeeded in retaking the Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula broadly known as Al-Andalus...

.

Legacy

The Almohads left behind a legacy of resentment. They had been at war often with the Christian kingdoms of the north, and there was a good deal of hostility between them still. Las Navas, an important battle and the turning point in the reconquista was fought under their rule. Before them much of Spain was firmly under Muslim control. After they fell from power merely a few strongholds in the south of the peninsula, most importantly Granada, were left under their rule. A number of Jews and Christians had left their territory to escape the forced conversions. This left Al-Andalus relatively free of the religious diversity. This led to resentment from the Christian north and fragmentation in the views of the Muslim south. This may not have caused the Reconquista

Reconquista

The Reconquista was a period of almost 800 years in the Middle Ages during which several Christian kingdoms succeeded in retaking the Muslim-controlled areas of the Iberian Peninsula broadly known as Al-Andalus...

, however they certainly helped speed up the process.

This articlie is one of the worst on Wikipedia. When the Almohads moved in Andaus, nearly half of mulsim lands in Spain had already been conquered by Christians. If anything, the Almohads helped to halt the Christian expansion. At least for a century.