Yuchi
Encyclopedia
For the Chinese surname 尉迟, see Yuchi
.
The Yuchi, also spelled Euchee and Uchee, are a Native American
Indian tribe
who traditionally lived in the eastern Tennessee River
valley in Tennessee
in the 16th century. During the 17th century, they moved south to Alabama
, Georgia
and South Carolina
. After suffering many fatalities due to epidemic
disease and warfare in the 18th century, surviving Yuchi were removed to Indian Territory
in the 1830s, together with their allies the Muscogee Creek. Some remnant groups migrated to Florida, where they became part of the recently formed Seminole
tribe.
Today the Yuchi live primarily in the northeastern Oklahoma
area, where many are enrolled as citizens in the federally recognized Muscogee Creek Nation. Some Yuchi are enrolled as members of other federally recognized tribes, such as the Absentee Shawnee Tribe and the Cherokee Nation
.
call them Tahokale, and the Cherokee
call them Aniyutsi.
explorer Hernando de Soto as a powerful tribe living in what is now central Tennessee
. European colonial records from the 17th century note the Yuchi.
Both historical and archaeological evidence exists documenting several Yuchi towns of the 18th century. Among these was Chestowee in southeastern Tennessee. In 1714, instigated by two fur traders from South Carolina
, the Cherokee
attacked and destroyed Chestowee. The Cherokee were prepared to carry their attacks further to Yuchi settlements on the Savannah River
, but the colonial government of South Carolina did not condone the attacks. The Cherokee held back. The Cherokee destruction of Chestowee marked their emergence as a major power in the Southeast
.
Yuchi towns were also documented in Georgia and South Carolina, as the tribe had migrated there to escape pressure from the Cherokee. "Mount Pleasant" was noted as being on the Savannah River
in present-day Effingham County, Georgia
, from about 1722 to about 1750. It was first a Yuchi town. To take advantage of trade, the British established a trading post
and small military garrison there, which they called Mount Pleasant.
"Euchee Town" (also called Uche Town), a large settlement on the Chattahoochee River
, was documented from the middle to late 18th century. It was located near Euchee (or Uche) Creek about ten miles downriver from the Muscogee Creek settlement of Coweta Old Town. The naturalist
William Bartram
visited Euchee Town in 1778, and in his letters called it the largest and most compact Indian town he had ever encountered, with large, well-built houses. Benjamin Hawkins
also visited the town and described the Yuchi as "more orderly and industrious" than the other tribes of the Creek Confederacy. However, the Yuchi began to move on, some into Florida, and during the Creek War
of 1813–1814 many joined the Red Sticks
party. Euchee Town decayed and the tribe became one of the poorest of the Creek communities, at the same time gaining a bad reputation. The archaeological site
of the town, designated a National Historic Landmark
, is within the boundaries of present-day Fort Benning, Georgia.
Colonists noted Patsiliga on the Flint River
in the late 18th century. There were also other possible Yuchi towns on the Oconee River
near Uchee Creek in Wilkinson County, Georgia
, and on Brier Creek in Burke County, Georgia
or Screven County, Georgia
. A Yuchi town was sited at present-day Silver Bluff in Aiken County, South Carolina
from 1746 to 1751.
During the 18th century, the Yuchi consistently allied with the British
, with whom they traded deer hides and Indian slaves. The population of the Yuchi plummeted in the 18th century due to Eurasia
n infectious diseases, to which they had no immunity, and to war with the Cherokee
, who were moving into their territory and were much more powerful. After the American Revolution
, Yuchi people maintained close relations with the Creek Confederacy. Some Yuchi migrated south to Florida
along with the Creek, where they became part of the newly formed Seminole
people.
In the 1830s, the US government removed the Yuchi, along with the Muscogee Creek, from Alabama and Georgia to Indian Territory
(present day Oklahoma
). The Yuchi settled in the north and northwestern parts of the Creek Nation. Three tribal towns which the Yuchi established in the 19th century continue today: Duck Creek, Polecat, and Sand Creek.
was a well known chief during the Second Seminole War, who was captured with his brother Jack in 1837 by General Hernandez
, the same General who captured Osceola
. They were all imprisoned in Fort Marion
in St. Augustine, Florida
.
Currently, most Yuchi are of multi-tribal descent. Many are citizens of the Muscogee (Creek) Nation. Some are citizens of other tribes, such as the Shawnee
or Sauk and Fox Nation.
Nonetheless, they continue to assert a Yuchi cultural identity, continuing the practice of important ceremonies such as the Green Corn Ceremony
of mid-summer, and others. Members belong to the Native American Church
and a Methodist congregation.
In the last decades of the 20th century, the surviving Yuchi have reorganized and tried to gain federal recognition as a tribe. As most descendants are enrolled in other federally recognized tribes already, they have not been successful. The unrecognized Euchee (Yuchi) Tribe of Indians is headquartered in Sapulpa, Oklahoma
and their tribal chairman is Andrew Skeeter.
is a linguistic isolate
, not known to be related to any other language. The Yuchi people and language are featured in a chapter in Mark Abley's Spoken Here: Travels Among Threatened Languages, a book on endangered languages. In 2000 the estimated number of fluent Yuchi speakers was 15, but this number dwindled to 7 by 2006. According to a 2011 documentary on the Yuchi language, the number of first-language speakers has been reduced to five.
Young people of the Yuchi have learned the language in recent years and are continuing to do so. Yuchi language classes are being taught in Sapulpa, Oklahoma
, in an effort led by Richard Grounds and the Euchee Language Project.
Yuchi (surname)
Yuchi is a Chinese compound surname which oringinated from a Xianbei trible. The emperial family of Kingdom of Khotan was named Yuchi. The well known military general Yuchi Gong also was descented from this family....
.
The Yuchi, also spelled Euchee and Uchee, are a Native American
Native Americans in the United States
Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples in North America within the boundaries of the present-day continental United States, parts of Alaska, and the island state of Hawaii. They are composed of numerous, distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as...
Indian tribe
Tribe
A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states.Many anthropologists use the term tribal society to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of kinship, especially corporate descent groups .Some theorists...
who traditionally lived in the eastern Tennessee River
Tennessee River
The Tennessee River is the largest tributary of the Ohio River. It is approximately 652 miles long and is located in the southeastern United States in the Tennessee Valley. The river was once popularly known as the Cherokee River, among other names...
valley in Tennessee
Tennessee
Tennessee is a U.S. state located in the Southeastern United States. It has a population of 6,346,105, making it the nation's 17th-largest state by population, and covers , making it the 36th-largest by total land area...
in the 16th century. During the 17th century, they moved south to Alabama
Alabama
Alabama is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland...
, Georgia
Georgia (U.S. state)
Georgia is a state located in the southeastern United States. It was established in 1732, the last of the original Thirteen Colonies. The state is named after King George II of Great Britain. Georgia was the fourth state to ratify the United States Constitution, on January 2, 1788...
and South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...
. After suffering many fatalities due to epidemic
Epidemic
In epidemiology, an epidemic , occurs when new cases of a certain disease, in a given human population, and during a given period, substantially exceed what is expected based on recent experience...
disease and warfare in the 18th century, surviving Yuchi were removed to Indian Territory
Indian Territory
The Indian Territory, also known as the Indian Territories and the Indian Country, was land set aside within the United States for the settlement of American Indians...
in the 1830s, together with their allies the Muscogee Creek. Some remnant groups migrated to Florida, where they became part of the recently formed Seminole
Seminole
The Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida, who now reside primarily in that state and Oklahoma. The Seminole nation emerged in a process of ethnogenesis out of groups of Native Americans, most significantly Creeks from what is now Georgia and Alabama, who settled in Florida in...
tribe.
Today the Yuchi live primarily in the northeastern Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. With an estimated 3,751,351 residents as of the 2010 census and a land area of 68,667 square miles , Oklahoma is the 28th most populous and 20th-largest state...
area, where many are enrolled as citizens in the federally recognized Muscogee Creek Nation. Some Yuchi are enrolled as members of other federally recognized tribes, such as the Absentee Shawnee Tribe and the Cherokee Nation
Cherokee Nation
The Cherokee Nation is the largest of three Cherokee federally recognized tribes in the United States. It was established in the 20th century, and includes people descended from members of the old Cherokee Nation who relocated voluntarily from the Southeast to Indian Territory and Cherokees who...
.
Name
Yuchi is commonly interpreted to mean "over there sit/live" or "situated yonder." Their autonym, or name for themselves, is Coyaha or Tsoyaha, meaning "Children of the Sun." The ShawneeShawnee language
The Shawnee language is a Central Algonquian language spoken in parts of central and northeastern Oklahoma by only around 200 Shawnee, making it an endangered language. It was originally spoken in Ohio, West Virginia, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania...
call them Tahokale, and the Cherokee
Cherokee language
Cherokee is an Iroquoian language spoken by the Cherokee people which uses a unique syllabary writing system. It is the only Southern Iroquoian language that remains spoken. Cherokee is a polysynthetic language.-North American etymology:...
call them Aniyutsi.
History
The origin of the Yuchi has long been a mystery. The Yuchi language does not closely resemble any other Native American language. In the 16th century, the tribe was documented by the SpanishSpanish people
The Spanish are citizens of the Kingdom of Spain. Within Spain, there are also a number of vigorous nationalisms and regionalisms, reflecting the country's complex history....
explorer Hernando de Soto as a powerful tribe living in what is now central Tennessee
Tennessee
Tennessee is a U.S. state located in the Southeastern United States. It has a population of 6,346,105, making it the nation's 17th-largest state by population, and covers , making it the 36th-largest by total land area...
. European colonial records from the 17th century note the Yuchi.
Both historical and archaeological evidence exists documenting several Yuchi towns of the 18th century. Among these was Chestowee in southeastern Tennessee. In 1714, instigated by two fur traders from South Carolina
South Carolina
South Carolina is a state in the Deep South of the United States that borders Georgia to the south, North Carolina to the north, and the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Originally part of the Province of Carolina, the Province of South Carolina was one of the 13 colonies that declared independence...
, the Cherokee
Cherokee
The Cherokee are a Native American people historically settled in the Southeastern United States . Linguistically, they are part of the Iroquoian language family...
attacked and destroyed Chestowee. The Cherokee were prepared to carry their attacks further to Yuchi settlements on the Savannah River
Savannah River
The Savannah River is a major river in the southeastern United States, forming most of the border between the states of South Carolina and Georgia. Two tributaries of the Savannah, the Tugaloo River and the Chattooga River, form the northernmost part of the border...
, but the colonial government of South Carolina did not condone the attacks. The Cherokee held back. The Cherokee destruction of Chestowee marked their emergence as a major power in the Southeast
Southeastern United States
The Southeastern United States, colloquially referred to as the Southeast, is the eastern portion of the Southern United States. It is one of the most populous regions in the United States of America....
.
Savannah River
The Savannah River is a major river in the southeastern United States, forming most of the border between the states of South Carolina and Georgia. Two tributaries of the Savannah, the Tugaloo River and the Chattooga River, form the northernmost part of the border...
in present-day Effingham County, Georgia
Effingham County, Georgia
Effingham County is a county located in the U.S. state of Georgia. In the United States Census of 2000, the population was 37,535. The Census Bureau's 2008 estimate estimates that this figure has grown to 52,060. The seat of Effingham County is Springfield....
, from about 1722 to about 1750. It was first a Yuchi town. To take advantage of trade, the British established a trading post
Trading post
A trading post was a place or establishment in historic Northern America where the trading of goods took place. The preferred travel route to a trading post or between trading posts, was known as a trade route....
and small military garrison there, which they called Mount Pleasant.
"Euchee Town" (also called Uche Town), a large settlement on the Chattahoochee River
Chattahoochee River
The Chattahoochee River flows through or along the borders of the U.S. states of Georgia, Alabama, and Florida. It is a tributary of the Apalachicola River, a relatively short river formed by the confluence of the Chattahoochee and Flint Rivers and emptying into Apalachicola Bay in the Gulf of...
, was documented from the middle to late 18th century. It was located near Euchee (or Uche) Creek about ten miles downriver from the Muscogee Creek settlement of Coweta Old Town. The naturalist
Naturalist
Naturalist may refer to:* Practitioner of natural history* Conservationist* Advocate of naturalism * Naturalist , autobiography-See also:* The American Naturalist, periodical* Naturalism...
William Bartram
William Bartram
William Bartram was an American naturalist. The son of Ann and John Bartram, William Bartram and his twin sister Elizabeth were born in Kingsessing, Pennsylvania, near Philadelphia. As a boy, he accompanied his father on many of his travels, to the Catskill Mountains, the New Jersey Pine Barrens,...
visited Euchee Town in 1778, and in his letters called it the largest and most compact Indian town he had ever encountered, with large, well-built houses. Benjamin Hawkins
Benjamin Hawkins
Benjamin Hawkins was an American planter, statesman, and United States Indian agent . He was a delegate to the Continental Congress and a United States Senator from North Carolina, having grown up among the planter elite...
also visited the town and described the Yuchi as "more orderly and industrious" than the other tribes of the Creek Confederacy. However, the Yuchi began to move on, some into Florida, and during the Creek War
Creek War
The Creek War , also known as the Red Stick War and the Creek Civil War, began as a civil war within the Creek nation...
of 1813–1814 many joined the Red Sticks
Red Sticks
Red Sticks is the English term for a traditionalist faction of Creek Indians who led a resistance movement which culminated in the outbreak of the Creek War in 1813....
party. Euchee Town decayed and the tribe became one of the poorest of the Creek communities, at the same time gaining a bad reputation. The archaeological site
Archaeological site
An archaeological site is a place in which evidence of past activity is preserved , and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline of archaeology and represents a part of the archaeological record.Beyond this, the definition and geographical extent of a 'site' can vary widely,...
of the town, designated a National Historic Landmark
National Historic Landmark
A National Historic Landmark is a building, site, structure, object, or district, that is officially recognized by the United States government for its historical significance...
, is within the boundaries of present-day Fort Benning, Georgia.
Colonists noted Patsiliga on the Flint River
Flint River (Georgia)
The Flint River is a river in the U.S. state of Georgia. The river drains of western Georgia, flowing south from the upper Piedmont region south of Atlanta to the wetlands of the Gulf Coastal Plain in the southwestern corner of the state. Along with the Apalachicola and the Chattahoochee rivers,...
in the late 18th century. There were also other possible Yuchi towns on the Oconee River
Oconee River
The Oconee River is a river which has its origin in Hall County, Georgia, and terminates where it joins the Ocmulgee River to form the Altamaha River near Lumber City at the borders of Montgomery County, Wheeler County, and Jeff Davis County. South of Athens, two forks, known as the North Oconee...
near Uchee Creek in Wilkinson County, Georgia
Wilkinson County, Georgia
Wilkinson County is a county located in the U.S. state of Georgia. It was created on May 11, 1803. As of 2000, the population was 10,220. The 2007 Census Estimate shows a population of 10,064...
, and on Brier Creek in Burke County, Georgia
Burke County, Georgia
Burke County is a county located in the U.S. state of Georgia. As of 2000, the population was 22,243. The 2007 Census Estimate showed a population of 22,754...
or Screven County, Georgia
Screven County, Georgia
Screven County is a county located in the U.S. state of Georgia. As of 2000, the population was 15,374. The 2007 Census Estimate shows a population of 15,037...
. A Yuchi town was sited at present-day Silver Bluff in Aiken County, South Carolina
Aiken County, South Carolina
Aiken County is a county located in the U.S. state of South Carolina. In 2000, its population was 142,552; in 2010, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated that its population had reached 160,099...
from 1746 to 1751.
During the 18th century, the Yuchi consistently allied with the British
British colonization of the Americas
British colonization of the Americas began in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia and reached its peak when colonies had been established throughout the Americas...
, with whom they traded deer hides and Indian slaves. The population of the Yuchi plummeted in the 18th century due to Eurasia
Eurasia
Eurasia is a continent or supercontinent comprising the traditional continents of Europe and Asia ; covering about 52,990,000 km2 or about 10.6% of the Earth's surface located primarily in the eastern and northern hemispheres...
n infectious diseases, to which they had no immunity, and to war with the Cherokee
Cherokee
The Cherokee are a Native American people historically settled in the Southeastern United States . Linguistically, they are part of the Iroquoian language family...
, who were moving into their territory and were much more powerful. After the American Revolution
American Revolution
The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become the United States of America...
, Yuchi people maintained close relations with the Creek Confederacy. Some Yuchi migrated south to Florida
Florida
Florida is a state in the southeastern United States, located on the nation's Atlantic and Gulf coasts. It is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the north by Alabama and Georgia and to the east by the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of 18,801,310 as measured by the 2010 census, it...
along with the Creek, where they became part of the newly formed Seminole
Seminole
The Seminole are a Native American people originally of Florida, who now reside primarily in that state and Oklahoma. The Seminole nation emerged in a process of ethnogenesis out of groups of Native Americans, most significantly Creeks from what is now Georgia and Alabama, who settled in Florida in...
people.
In the 1830s, the US government removed the Yuchi, along with the Muscogee Creek, from Alabama and Georgia to Indian Territory
Indian Territory
The Indian Territory, also known as the Indian Territories and the Indian Country, was land set aside within the United States for the settlement of American Indians...
(present day Oklahoma
Oklahoma
Oklahoma is a state located in the South Central region of the United States of America. With an estimated 3,751,351 residents as of the 2010 census and a land area of 68,667 square miles , Oklahoma is the 28th most populous and 20th-largest state...
). The Yuchi settled in the north and northwestern parts of the Creek Nation. Three tribal towns which the Yuchi established in the 19th century continue today: Duck Creek, Polecat, and Sand Creek.
Second Seminole War
Some Yuchi escaped forced removal by going to Florida, where they joined with the Seminole. Uchee BillyUchee Billy
Uchee Billy or Yuchi Billy was a chief of the Yuchi tribe who along with his band escaped forced relocation from Georgia to Indian Territory by moving to the area of what is now Volusia County, Florida in 1822...
was a well known chief during the Second Seminole War, who was captured with his brother Jack in 1837 by General Hernandez
Mala Compra Plantation Archeological Site
The Mala Compra Plantation Archeological Site is an archaeological site in Palm Coast, Florida. It is located west of the intersection of North Oceanshore Boulevard and Mala Compra Drive. On March 5, 2004, it was added to the U.S...
, the same General who captured Osceola
Osceola
Osceola, also known as Billy Powell , became an influential leader with the Seminole in Florida. He was of Creek, Scots-Irish and English parentage, and had migrated to Florida with his mother after the defeat of the Creek in 1814.Osceola led a small band of warriors in the Seminole resistance...
. They were all imprisoned in Fort Marion
Castillo de San Marcos
The Castillo de San Marcos site is the oldest masonry fort in the United States. It is located in the city of St. Augustine, Florida. Construction was begun in 1672 by the Spanish when Florida was a Spanish territory. During the twenty year period of British possession from 1763 until 1784, the...
in St. Augustine, Florida
St. Augustine, Florida
St. Augustine is a city in the northeast section of Florida and the county seat of St. Johns County, Florida, United States. Founded in 1565 by Spanish explorer and admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, it is the oldest continuously occupied European-established city and port in the continental United...
.
Current status
Shawnee
The Shawnee, Shaawanwaki, Shaawanooki and Shaawanowi lenaweeki, are an Algonquian-speaking people native to North America. Historically they inhabited the areas of Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, Western Maryland, Kentucky, Indiana, and Pennsylvania...
or Sauk and Fox Nation.
Nonetheless, they continue to assert a Yuchi cultural identity, continuing the practice of important ceremonies such as the Green Corn Ceremony
Green Corn Ceremony
The Green Corn Ceremony is an English term that refers to a general religious and social theme celebrated by a number of American Indian peoples of the Eastern Woodlands and the Southeastern tribes...
of mid-summer, and others. Members belong to the Native American Church
Native American Church
Native American Church, a religious denomination which practices Peyotism or the Peyote religion, originated in the U.S. state of Oklahoma, and is the most widespread indigenous religion among Native Americans in the United States...
and a Methodist congregation.
In the last decades of the 20th century, the surviving Yuchi have reorganized and tried to gain federal recognition as a tribe. As most descendants are enrolled in other federally recognized tribes already, they have not been successful. The unrecognized Euchee (Yuchi) Tribe of Indians is headquartered in Sapulpa, Oklahoma
Sapulpa, Oklahoma
Sapulpa is a city in Creek and Tulsa counties in the U.S. state of Oklahoma. The population was 20,544 at the 2010 United States census, compared to 19,166 at the 2000 census...
and their tribal chairman is Andrew Skeeter.
Yuchi language
The Yuchi languageYuchi language
The Yuchi language is the language of the Yuchi people living in the southeastern United States, including eastern Tennessee, western Carolinas, northern Georgia and Alabama, in the period of early European colonization. However, speakers of the Yuchi language were forcibly relocated to Oklahoma...
is a linguistic isolate
Language isolate
A language isolate, in the absolute sense, is a natural language with no demonstrable genealogical relationship with other languages; that is, one that has not been demonstrated to descend from an ancestor common with any other language. They are in effect language families consisting of a single...
, not known to be related to any other language. The Yuchi people and language are featured in a chapter in Mark Abley's Spoken Here: Travels Among Threatened Languages, a book on endangered languages. In 2000 the estimated number of fluent Yuchi speakers was 15, but this number dwindled to 7 by 2006. According to a 2011 documentary on the Yuchi language, the number of first-language speakers has been reduced to five.
Young people of the Yuchi have learned the language in recent years and are continuing to do so. Yuchi language classes are being taught in Sapulpa, Oklahoma
Sapulpa, Oklahoma
Sapulpa is a city in Creek and Tulsa counties in the U.S. state of Oklahoma. The population was 20,544 at the 2010 United States census, compared to 19,166 at the 2000 census...
, in an effort led by Richard Grounds and the Euchee Language Project.
Notable Yuchi
- Uchee BillyUchee BillyUchee Billy or Yuchi Billy was a chief of the Yuchi tribe who along with his band escaped forced relocation from Georgia to Indian Territory by moving to the area of what is now Volusia County, Florida in 1822...
(died 1837), warrior - Sam StorySam StorySam Story, also named Timpoochee Kinnard, was Chief of the Walton County, Florida, band of Euchee Indians in the early 19th century, who occupied the lands on and to the west of the Choctawhatchee River. His parents were Timothy Kinnard, a white man of Scottish descent, and an unknown Yuchi woman...
, 19th century chief - Richard Ray WhitmanRichard Ray WhitmanRichard Ray Whitman is a Yuchi-Muscogee Creek multidisciplinary visual artist, poet, and actor. He is enrolled in the Muscogee Creek Nation and lives in Oklahoma.-Background:...
(b. 1949), artist, poet, actor
Further reading
- Mark Abley, Spoken Here: Travels Among Threatened Languages, Houghton Mifflin, 2003.
- Jason Jackson, Yuchi Ceremonial Life: Performance, Meaning, and Tradition in a Contemporary American Indian Community, University of Nebraska Press, 2003.
- Frank Speck, Ethnology of the Yuchi Indians (reprint), University of Nebraska Press, 2004.
- Daniel Elliott, Ye Pleasant Mount: 1989&1990 Excavations. The LAMAR Institute, University of Georgia, 1991.
External links
- The Euchee Language Project
- Who Were the Mysterious Yuchi of Tennessee and the Southeast?, Yuchi.org
- Memoirs of Jeremiah Curtin in the Indian Territory, pp. 327, 333-335. 19th century ethnographer's account of learning Yuchi language in 1883 in a Yuchi settlement 55 miles from Muskogee, OklahomaMuskogee, OklahomaMuskogee is a city in Muskogee County, Oklahoma, United States. It is the county seat of Muskogee County, and home to Bacone College. The population was 38,310 at the 2000 census, making it the eleventh-largest city in Oklahoma....
. Electronic record maintained by Library of CongressLibrary of CongressThe Library of Congress is the research library of the United States Congress, de facto national library of the United States, and the oldest federal cultural institution in the United States. Located in three buildings in Washington, D.C., it is the largest library in the world by shelf space and...
, accessed January 15, 2007.