Terry McAuliffe
Encyclopedia
Terence Richard "Terry" McAuliffe (mɨˈkɔːlɨf; born February 9, 1957) is a longtime leader and political advisor for the United States Democratic Party
Democratic Party (United States)
The Democratic Party is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States, along with the Republican Party. The party's socially liberal and progressive platform is largely considered center-left in the U.S. political spectrum. The party has the lengthiest record of continuous...

. He served as chairman of the Democratic National Committee
Democratic National Committee
The Democratic National Committee is the principal organization governing the United States Democratic Party on a day to day basis. While it is responsible for overseeing the process of writing a platform every four years, the DNC's central focus is on campaign and political activity in support...

 from 2001 to 2005. He served as Co-Chairman of President William Jefferson Clinton's 1996 re-election campaign and also served as chairman of the 2008 Hillary Clinton presidential campaign
Hillary Clinton presidential campaign, 2008
New York junior Senator and former First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton had expressed interest in the 2008 United States presidential election since at least October 2002, drawing media speculation on whether she would become a candidate. No woman has ever won the nomination of a major party in the...

. He unsuccessfully ran for the 2009 Virginia Democratic gubernatorial nomination.

Family and education

McAuliffe grew up in Syracuse
Syracuse, New York
Syracuse is a city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States, the largest U.S. city with the name "Syracuse", and the fifth most populous city in the state. At the 2010 census, the city population was 145,170, and its metropolitan area had a population of 742,603...

, New York and graduated from Bishop Ludden Junior/Senior High School
Bishop Ludden Junior/Senior High School
Bishop Ludden Junior/Senior High School is a private, Roman Catholic high school in Syracuse, New York. It is located within the Roman Catholic Diocese of Syracuse...

 in 1975. His father was treasurer of the local Democratic organization. He started his first business, McAuliffe Driveway Maintenance, at the age of 14. In 1979, he received a bachelors degree from The Catholic University of America
The Catholic University of America
The Catholic University of America is a private university located in Washington, D.C. in the United States. It is a pontifical university of the Catholic Church in the United States and the only institution of higher education founded by the U.S. Catholic bishops...

 in Washington, D.C. After graduation, McAuliffe took a job in the 1980 presidential reelection campaign
United States presidential election, 1980
The United States presidential election of 1980 featured a contest between incumbent Democrat Jimmy Carter and his Republican opponent, Ronald Reagan, as well as Republican Congressman John B. Anderson, who ran as an independent...

 of Jimmy Carter
Jimmy Carter
James Earl "Jimmy" Carter, Jr. is an American politician who served as the 39th President of the United States and was the recipient of the 2002 Nobel Peace Prize, the only U.S. President to have received the Prize after leaving office...

, and at the age of 22 became the national finance director. It was during this campaign that McAuliffe wrestled an eight-foot, 260-pound alligator for a $15,000 contribution. After the campaign, McAuliffe enrolled in law school at Georgetown University
Georgetown University Law Center
Georgetown University Law Center is the law school of Georgetown University, located in Washington, D.C.. Established in 1870, the Law Center offers J.D., LL.M., and S.J.D. degrees in law...

. He received a Juris Doctor
Juris Doctor
Juris Doctor is a professional doctorate and first professional graduate degree in law.The degree was first awarded by Harvard University in the United States in the late 19th century and was created as a modern version of the old European doctor of law degree Juris Doctor (see etymology and...

 degree in 1984. McAuliffe then served as Chairman of the Federal City National Bank by the age of 30.

He has five children with wife Dorothy: Dori, Jack, Mary, Sally, and Peter.

Business career

At the age of 14, McAuliffe started his first business. Under the name McAuliffe Driveway Maintenance he sealed local driveways and parking lots.
"After graduating from Georgetown Law, McAuliffe has been forming partnerships, raising capital and investing in business ventures. He has earned millions as a banker, real estate developer, home builder, hotel owner, and internet venture capitalist." According to the Washington Post, "McAuliffe is, at his core, a salesman -- and even called himself a "hustler" in his autobiography."

Federal City National Bank, 1988-91

In January 1988, when he was 30 years old, McAuliffe became the youngest chairman of a bank in the history of the United States when he assumed responsibility for all aspects of Federal City's operations.

Shortly thereafter, the bank loaned $125,000 to a political action committee that supported Richard Gephardt's Presidential campaign. McAuliffe told the New York Times that he abstained from voting on the loan because he was also the Gephardt campaign's finance chairman. The bank also provided loans to former U.S. Representative Tony Coelho
Tony Coelho
Anthony "Tony" Coelho is a former United States congressman from California, and primary sponsor of the Americans with Disabilities Act...

 and the then-Speaker of the United States House of Representatives
Speaker of the United States House of Representatives
The Speaker of the United States House of Representatives, or Speaker of the House, is the presiding officer of the United States House of Representatives...

, Jim Wright
Jim Wright
James Claude Wright, Jr. , usually known as Jim Wright, is a former Democratic U.S. Congressman from Texas who served 34 years in the U.S. House of Representatives and was the Speaker of the House from 1987 to 1989.-Early life:...

.

In 1991, the bank was cited by federal regulators for unsafe and unsound banking practices. Regulators forced McAuliffe and other bank directors to sign a consent agreement that required the bank to hire outside management, review delinquent loans, track bad credit, and raise additional capital. In December 1991, McAuliffe acknowledged that he "knew we were in awful trouble" and that "the liquidators were ready to roll." In what he now refers to as his "greatest business experience", McAuliffe "rallied the board members" and merged Federal City National Bank with another institution run by Republican Richard V. Allen
Richard V. Allen
Richard Vincent Allen was the United States National Security Advisor to President Ronald Reagan from 1981 to 1982.Allen was born in 1936 in Collingswood, New Jersey. A graduate of Saint Francis Preparatory School in Spring Grove, Pennsylvania, Allen received his B.A. and M.A. degrees from the...

; Credit International Bank, thereby saving the institution.

American Heritage Homes

McAuliffe acquired a struggling homebuilding company that was on the verge of bankruptcy. Within 5 years, McAuliffe and his team successfully built the company into one of the largest and most successful homebuilding companies. During his tenure as chairman, AHH built over 6,000 homes and created thousands of jobs in the construction business. The company was sold to KB Home
KB Home
KB Home is a homebuilding company based in the United States, founded in 1957 as Kaufman & Broad in Detroit, Michigan. It was the first company to be traded on the NYSE as a home builder and is a Fortune 500 company...

 in 2001.

In 2010 GreenTech Automotive acquired EU Auto MyCar
EU Auto MyCar
The MyCar manufactured by EU Auto is an electric car that is currently sold in Hong Kong, Britain, France and Austria.-History:The car was first conceived by Giorgetto Giugiaro in 2003. The concept was then developed by EU Auto with the car launched by the NICE Car Company at the 2008 London...

, with a signing ceremony in Hong Kong.

Greentech Automotive

McAuliffe is a founder and chairman of GreenTech Automotive, a leader in affordable and next generation energy efficient vehicles. The company has 5 automobiles in its product line, including 2 electric vehicles and 3 hybrids. The company presently has a 400000 square feet (37,161.2 m²) production plant under construction in Northern Mississippi.

Business experience timeline


Political career

From 1980 to 1981, McAuliffe served as Deputy Treasurer and Director of Finance at the Democratic National Committee. From 1982 to 1986, while attending Georgetown University Law School full time, McAuliffe served as finance director of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee
Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee
The Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee is the Democratic Hill committee for the United States House of Representatives, working to elect Democrats to that body. They play a critical role in recruiting candidates, raising funds, and organizing races in districts that are expected to yield...

. During the 1988 presidential campaign, he served as finance chairman for Dick Gephardt
Dick Gephardt
Richard Andrew "Dick" Gephardt is a lobbyist and former prominent American politician of the Democratic Party. Gephardt served as a U.S. Representative from Missouri from January 3, 1977, until January 3, 2005, serving as House Majority Leader from 1989 to 1995, and as Minority Leader from 1995 to...

. During the 1996 election cycle, he served as national finance chairman and then national co-chairman of the Clinton-Gore re-election committee. In 1997, he was chairman of the 53rd Presidential Inaugural Committee. In 1999, he was chairman of the White House Millennium Celebration
White House Millennium Council
The White House Millennium Council was an American organization established by Executive Order 13072 in 1998 by President Bill Clinton to commemorate the millennium...

. In 2000, McAuliffe chaired a tribute to outgoing President Bill Clinton
Bill Clinton
William Jefferson "Bill" Clinton is an American politician who served as the 42nd President of the United States from 1993 to 2001. Inaugurated at age 46, he was the third-youngest president. He took office at the end of the Cold War, and was the first president of the baby boomer generation...

, which set a fundraising record for a single event, raising $26.3 million. The same year, he chaired the Democratic National Convention
2000 Democratic National Convention
The 2000 Democratic National Convention was a quadrennial presidential nominating convention for the Democratic Party. The convention nominated Vice President Al Gore as its candidate for President and Connecticut Senator Joe Lieberman as its candidate for Vice President. The convention was held at...

 in Los Angeles. In 2001, McAuliffe spoke out against the Clinton pardons, saying he considered Clinton a great friend, but the pardons were troubling and a mistake: "I've publicly said the Rich pardon was a mistake. If I were president I wouldn't have done it. All these incidents are unfortunate, frustrating and distracting, but ultimately they will run their course."

Ambassador to the Taejon Expo of South Korea

McAuliffe was President Clinton’s first ambassadorial appointment, naming him in 1993 as Ambassador and Commissioner General to Taejŏn Expo '93
Taejon Expo '93
Taejon Expo '93 was a three-month international exposition held between Saturday, August 7, 1993 and Sunday, November 7, 1993 in the central South Korean city of Daejeon .-Theme:...

, the International Exposition in Taejon, South Korea. He was sent to South Korea to deal with myriad of financial and technological problems with the US Pavilion left from the Bush Administration. He was credited with saving the Pavilion and for the first time in US history, US participation in a world exposition was funded solely with private funds, thus saving the taxpayers millions of dollars.

Chairman of the Democratic National Committee

In February 2001, McAuliffe was elected chairman of the DNC and served until February 2005. During that time, he raised $578 million and the Democratic Party emerged from debt for the first time in its history.

Under McAuliffe, the DNC built a new headquarters, created a computer database of more than 170 million potential voters known as "Demzilla
Demzilla
DataMart and Demzilla were databases that were rolled out by the Democratic Party from 2002. By 2004 Datamart contained information on 166 million registered voters, and with input from public voter informartion and consumer data from data mining companies a single entry might have 200 to 400 items...

", founded a Women’s Vote Center to educate and mobilize women voters, founded the Voting Rights Institute to protect voting rights, and founded “Something New,” an initiative to mobilize younger voters. Circumstances affecting the outcome of the 2002 Senate elections included the influence of the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, which heavily favored the GOP. There were also allegations of Republican election rigging, as GOP political operatives were accused of illegally jamming the phone lines of New Hampshire Democrats on election day, a race in which GOP candidate John Sununu
John E. Sununu
John Edward Sununu is a former Republican United States Senator from New Hampshire, of Lebanese and Palestinian Christian ancestry. Sununu was the youngest member of the Senate for his entire six year term. He is the son of former New Hampshire Governor John H...

 barely edged Jeanne Shaheen
Jeanne Shaheen
Jeanne Shaheen is an American politician, a member of the Democratic Party, and the Senior United States Senator from New Hampshire. The first woman in U.S. history to be elected as both a Governor and U.S. Senator, she was the first woman to be elected Governor of New Hampshire, serving from...

 by 19,000 votes.

Democrats would lose a net of 8 seats in the House in the 2002 elections, magnifying mainly the failures of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee, as the DNC would spend more money on the November 2002 Congressional elections than any time in in its history, including $10 million alone on the Congressional redistricting project that would set the party up for Congressional election success not only in 2002 but for years to come.

Despite myriad forces working against the Democrats, there were small electoral victories in 2002 that would lay the groundwork for future successes the party would experience. McAuliffe surveyed the local election landscape and made sound investments in important mayoral races, winning all 8 of those which they identified as critical, including important races in large urban areas such as Los Angeles, St. Louis, and Jersey City. The Democrats also picked up both governors' seats up for election in 2001
United States gubernatorial elections, 2001
The U.S. gubernatorial elections of 2001 were held on November 6, 2001. Two states voted to select a governor, as well as other statewide offices and members of state legislatures.-Election results:-References:...

 & 11 (mostly open) governorships in 2002
United States gubernatorial elections, 2002
Although Republicans made some gains from Democrats, Democrats increased their overall number of governorships.-Democratic gains:* Arizona - State Attorney General Janet Napolitano won an open seat held by term-limited Gov. Jane Dee Hull...

.

In the transition period between the 2002 elections and the 2004 Democratic convention, the DNC rebuilt operations and intra-party alliances. Donna Brazile, one of McAuliffe's early critics, summed up McAuliffe's revival: "We boxed. He has been punched, believe me. Now, Terry has put the party in a strong strategic position."

In 2003-04, the DNC hosted six presidential primary debates, more than had ever been held previously, including the first-ever bilingual presidential debate. The DNC also partnered with the Congressional Black Caucus
Congressional Black Caucus
The Congressional Black Caucus is an organization representing the black members of the United States Congress. Membership is exclusive to blacks, and its chair in the 112th Congress is Representative Emanuel Cleaver of Missouri.-Aims:...

 to hold a debate in Baltimore, Maryland. Additionally, McAuliffe worked to restructure the Democratic primary schedule so that states such as South Carolina, Arizona and New Mexico would be allowed to vote earlier, in move designed to bolster ties to African-American and Hispanic communities. According to the Washington Post, the new schedule gave Senator Kerry enough time to raise more than $200 million for the general election.

In January 2005, several weeks before his term ended, McAuliffe committed and left 5 million in the bank to be spent in the Commonwealth of Virginia to assist Governor Kaine and other Democrats in their upcoming elections. This donation was the largest non-presidential disbursement in DNC history, and was part of McAuliffe's attempt to prove the Democrats' viability in southern states in the wake of the 2004 presidential election
United States presidential election, 2004
The United States presidential election of 2004 was the United States' 55th quadrennial presidential election. It was held on Tuesday, November 2, 2004. Republican Party candidate and incumbent President George W. Bush defeated Democratic Party candidate John Kerry, the then-junior U.S. Senator...

. Kaine was successful in his bid and was Governor of Virginia from 2006-2010.

DNC Highlights 2001-2005
  • Founded Women's Vote Center (WVC) with the purpose of educating, engaging, and mobilizing women voters across the United States. The three tenets upon which the WVC was founded included the recruitment and training of women through the Democratic Voices program, investment in internet outreach efforts such as the e-newsletter Week In Review, and cooperative efforts with state and local parties to target outreach to women voters.

  • Following the 2000 Presidential election, the Democratic Party created the Voter Rights Institute (VRI) to ensure that every vote is counted fully and fairly. In 2004 the VRI created the Election Assistance program linking an army of lawyers, organizers, and other advocates across the United States to ensure that the poor administration and illegal tactics common in the 2000 election were not repeated.

  • Led by McAuliffe, the DNC launched the "Something New" program, an aggressive young voter mobilization initiative. The program registered thousands of young voters and reached 100,000 young people while raising nearly $5 million for the DNC, 90% of which coming from first-time donors. Chapters of the College Democrats of America (CDA) also rose from 300 in 2000, to 1200 in 2005 as McAuliffe often headlined college tours to engage, recruit, and train young voters and organizers.

  • During McAuliffe's tenure, the Democratic recruited over 25,000 field precinct captains, conducted 530 organizing conventions across the country, knocked on 11 millions doors, and made 56 million paid phone calls through the help of 233,000 volunteers. During this time, voters said they were contacted in the mail, through the phone, and at the door more often by Democrats than by Republicans.

  • In what became the platform of McAuliffe's bid for Chairman of the DNC, he completed the technological overhaul of the party to meet and even surpass the Republicans in areas of voter registration files, technological infrastructure, and internet voter outreach. By 2003 the infrastructure and technological advancements were in place not only to battle the Republicans in 2004, but also in the future. In a December issue of The American Prospect
    The American Prospect
    The American Prospect is a monthly American political magazine dedicated to American liberalism. Based in Washington, DC, The American Prospect is a journal "of liberal ideas, committed to a just society, an enriched democracy, and effective liberal politics" which focuses on United States politics...

     Harold Meyerson wrote, "Working largely under the radar, McAuliffe has made the DNC better prepared for a Presidential election than it may ever have been."

Post-DNC Chairmanship

On January 23, 2007, his book, What A Party! My Life Among Democrats: Presidents, Candidates, Donors, Activists, Alligators, and Other Wild Animals (ISBN 9780312357870), was released and debuted at #5 on the New York Times Bestseller list and #1 on the Washington Post's list.

As a former party chairman, McAuliffe was one of the roughly 796 superdelegates to the 2008 Democratic National Convention
2008 Democratic National Convention
The United States 2008 Democratic National Convention was a quadrennial presidential nominating convention of the Democratic Party where it adopted its national platform and officially nominated its candidates for President and Vice President of the United States. The convention was held in Denver,...

.

During the 2008 presidential election campaign cycle, he was campaign chairman for Hillary Clinton.

Terry McAuliffe appears in the 2008 award-winning documentary Boogie Man: The Lee Atwater Story
Boogie Man: The Lee Atwater Story
Boogie Man: The Lee Atwater Story is a 2008 U.S. documentary on the campaign tactics used by Lee Atwater while working on the George H.W. Bush 1988 presidential campaign, and how those tactics have transformed presidential campaigns in the United States....

 on political strategist Lee Atwater. In the film, McAuliffe says, "When Bill Clinton got elected President, and you had wackos out there funding all these crazy projects, it all started with Lee Atwater. The first independent counsel said there was nothing there – to think they paid Ken Starr and his perverted investigations $70 million of taxpayers’ money? These folks believe you win at all cost.”

2009 Virginia gubernatorial campaign

On November 10, 2008, McAuliffe filed to form an exploratory committee for Governor of Virginia
Governor of Virginia
The governor of Virginia serves as the chief executive of the Commonwealth of Virginia for a four-year term. The position is currently held by Republican Bob McDonnell, who was inaugurated on January 16, 2010, as the 71st governor of Virginia....

 in the 2009 election
Virginia gubernatorial election, 2009
The Virginia gubernatorial election of 2009 took place on November 3, 2009. The election chose Bob McDonnell as the next Governor, Bill Bolling re-elected as Lieutenant Governor, and Ken Cuccinelli as the next Attorney General of the Commonwealth of Virginia. The winners were inaugurated on January...

. He told reporters that he had planned to spend the next few months traveling to "every corner of Virginia" to measure interest in his possible run. McAuliffe told The Washington Post that he is "best suited to carry the Democratic banner because he (would) campaign as a business leader who can bring jobs to Virginia." He also cited his ability to raise money for down-ticket Democratic candidates. On January 3, 2009, McAuliffe announced in a YouTube video emailed to his supporters that he would be seeking the Democratic Party nomination for Governor of Virginia.

McAuliffe's political team included several former staffers from the campaigns of Democrats Hillary Clinton, Tim Kaine, Mark Warner and Jim Webb. Among them were campaign manager Mike Henry, senior strategist Mo Elleithee, and communications director Delacey Skinner. According to The Washington Post, McAuliffe raised $7.5 million over the course of the campaign.

In the primary, McAuliffe faced two other high-profile Democrats, State Sen. Creigh Deeds
Creigh Deeds
Robert Creigh Deeds is an American politician who was the Democratic nominee for Governor of Virginia in 2009. He also ran in the 2005 race for Attorney General of Virginia. He was defeated in both of the above races by Bob McDonnell. Deeds lost by just 323 votes in 2005, but was defeated by a...

, 2005 nominee for Attorney General, and Brian Moran, a former state representative and former Democratic Caucus Chairman. On June 9, 2009, Virginia Democrats selected Deeds as their gubernatorial candidate with McAuliffe finishing second. Virginia Attorney General
Attorney General of Virginia
The Attorney General of Virginia is an executive office in the Government of Virginia. Attorneys General are elected for a four-year term in the year following a presidential election . There are no term limits restricting the number of terms someone can serve as Attorney General...

 Bob McDonnell
Bob McDonnell
Robert Francis "Bob" McDonnell is an American politician who has been the 71st Governor of Virginia since January 2010. A former lieutenant colonel in the United States Army, McDonnell served in the Virginia House of Delegates from 1993 to 2006 and served as Attorney General of Virginia from 2006...

 was the only candidate for the Republican nomination.

McAuliffe is widely considered to be eying another run for Governor of Virginia. In November 2009, Democratic nominee Creigh Deeds lost to Republican candidate Bob McDonnell by a margin of 18 points. McDonnell received the highest percentage of the vote since 1961. In the aftermath, many in the local and national media speculated that McAuliffe would have been in a better position to win the election, as Deeds was said to have lost on economic issues and those relating to jobs, the same platform upon which McAuliffe had hinged his campaign.

Visiting Fellow: Harvard University John F. Kennedy School of Government

McAuliffe was a visiting Fellow to Harvard University’s John F Kennedy School of Government. In addition to several faculty and student lectures, McAuliffe hosted a study group entitled The Making of a Candidate: From Running Campaigns to Running on my Own.

Political timeline


Global Crossing, 1997-99

Like many in the late 1990s, McAuliffe was consistently seeking out innovative business and investment opportunities related to the internet and other areas of high technology. Among them was his investment of $100,000 in a startup company called Global Crossing.
In the early 1990s, McAuliffe was approached by longtime friend Mike Steed concerning an investment opportunity in what was then known as Atlantic Crossing. The company would be among the first to lay a high-speed fiber-optic cable between the United States and Europe, anticipating the need for increasing data traffic to come in the next few years. McAuliffe himself refers to the investment as “risky,” given the lack of guarantees with technology startups. McAuliffe put up the money while the idea was still in its infancy, even before a company had been formed. The company would eventually wind up carrying half the data traffic between the United States and Europe and was widely considered a tremendous success.

When the company went public seventeen months later, the stock’s value rose quickly and McAuliffe’s initial $100,000 investment was valued at nearly $18 million. Global Crossing filed for bankruptcy in 2002 at a time when many technology startups began to fail and after McAuliffe had sold his stock. Though he had made millions from the stock, McAuliffe was never an employee of Global Crossing nor did he serve on its board of directors. Still, Republicans attempted to compare his investment in Global Crossing as equivalent to the insider trading activity that occurred at Enron.

In 2006, The Securities and Exchange Commission, after a four year investigation, ruled that no wrongdoing occurred at Global Crossing and no enforcement action was necessary.

McAuliffe played no management role in Global Crossing and had no ties to Enron. Howard Kurtz
Howard Kurtz
Howard "Howie" Alan Kurtz is an American journalist and author with a special focus on the media. He is host of CNN's Reliable Sources program, and Washington bureau chief for The Daily Beast. He is the former media writer for The Washington Post. He has written five books about the media...

 of CNN
CNN
Cable News Network is a U.S. cable news channel founded in 1980 by Ted Turner. Upon its launch, CNN was the first channel to provide 24-hour television news coverage, and the first all-news television channel in the United States...

 reported that McAuliffe was free of any wrongdoing, having sold his shares years before there was "any hint of trouble with the company." On July 20, 2002, Marc Racicot
Marc Racicot
Marc F. Racicot is a U.S. politician and lobbyist and member of the Republican Party. He was the governor of Montana from 1993 until 2001. After leaving office, Racicot worked as a lobbyist for the law firm Bracewell & Giuliani. His notable clients included Enron, Burlington Northern Santa Fe,...

, the chairman of the Republican National Committee
Republican National Committee
The Republican National Committee is an American political committee that provides national leadership for the Republican Party of the United States. It is responsible for developing and promoting the Republican political platform, as well as coordinating fundraising and election strategy. It is...

 told Fox News reporter Rita Cosby
Rita Cosby
Rita Cosby is a television news anchor and correspondent, radio host, and best selling author. She is currently a Special Correspondent for the CBS syndicated program Inside Edition, specializing in interviewing newsmakers and political figures...

, "I haven't seen anything that was done that was wrong by Terry McAuliffe." On January 29, 2000, McAuliffe discussed the issue on the Fox News television program Hannity & Colmes where he claimed that former President George H.W. Bush gave a speech in Japan praising Global Crossing in exchange for the right to purchase $80,000 of stock at a reduced price of 34 cents per share.

Book

On January 23, 2007, his book, What A Party! My Life Among Democrats: Presidents, Candidates, Donors, Activists, Alligators, and Other Wild Animals (ISBN 9780312357870) was published. It debuted at #5 on the New York Times Bestseller list and #1 on the Washington Posts list.

External links

The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.  The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.
 
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