Somatotype and constitutional psychology
Encyclopedia
Constitutional psychology is a theory, developed in the 1940s by American psychologist
William Herbert Sheldon, associating body types with human temperament
types.
Sheldon proposed that the human physique be classed according to the relative contribution of three fundamental elements, somatotypes, named after the three germ layer
s of embryonic development: the endoderm
, (develops into the digestive tract
), the mesoderm
, (becomes muscle
, heart
and blood vessel
s), and the ectoderm
(forms the skin and nervous system
).
In his 1954 book, Atlas of Men, Sheldon categorised all possible body types according to a scale ranging from 1 to 7 for each of the three "somatotypes", where the pure "endomorph" is 7–1–1, the pure "mesomorph" 1–7–1 and the pure "ectomorph" scores 1–1–7. From type number, an individual's mental characteristics could supposedly be predicted.
There is evidence that different physiques carry cultural stereotypes. For example, one study found that endomorphs are likely to be perceived as slow, sloppy, and lazy. Mesomorphs, in contrast, are typically stereotyped as popular and hardworking, whereas ectomorphs are often viewed as intelligent but fearful. Stereotypes of mesomorphs are generally much more favorable than those of endomorphs. Stereotypes of ectomorphs are somewhat mixed.
, Aldous Huxley
, and Robert S de Ropp
. The majority of scientists today generally consider such theories outdated. Some found the idea of somatotypes reminiscent of eugenics
and racial hygiene
; they went against the fashionable emphasis on nurture, presenting a ready-made paradigm that had strong resonances with mystical thought.
Sheldon's photographs of naked Yale undergraduates, numbered in the thousands, which had been taken under the umbrella of a pre-existing program for checking student posture, and other similar photographs that he had gathered from programs at other institutes, were eventually destroyed.
The words endomorphic, mesomorphic and ectomorphic are still sometimes used to describe body types, as, for example, in association with weight training
aimed at gaining muscle. The psychosomatic linkage is fairly simplistic and is seen as undemonstrated in physiological
science, but the account of somatotypes is still probably a valid, if limited, way to sort basic body types.
Sheldon himself was more a behavioral psychologist than either an anatomist
or a physiologist
. His behavioral conclusions were based largely on interviews which he or his students carried out over a long span of time, and the actual psychometric data were often more suggestive than conclusive. The prevalence of kindred ideas in folklore and spiritual philosophy, though, suggests that ideas similar to Sheldon's will continue to be held until they are conclusively proven or disproven.
Psychologist
Psychologist is a professional or academic title used by individuals who are either:* Clinical professionals who work with patients in a variety of therapeutic contexts .* Scientists conducting psychological research or teaching psychology in a college...
William Herbert Sheldon, associating body types with human temperament
Temperament
In psychology, temperament refers to those aspects of an individual's personality, such as introversion or extroversion, that are often regarded as innate rather than learned...
types.
Sheldon proposed that the human physique be classed according to the relative contribution of three fundamental elements, somatotypes, named after the three germ layer
Germ layer
A germ layer, occasionally referred to as a germinal epithelium, is a group of cells, formed during animal embryogenesis. Germ layers are particularly pronounced in the vertebrates; however, all animals more complex than sponges produce two or three primary tissue layers...
s of embryonic development: the endoderm
Endoderm
Endoderm is one of the three primary germ cell layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the ectoderm and mesoderm , with the endoderm as the intermost layer...
, (develops into the digestive tract
Gastrointestinal tract
The human gastrointestinal tract refers to the stomach and intestine, and sometimes to all the structures from the mouth to the anus. ....
), the mesoderm
Mesoderm
In all bilaterian animals, the mesoderm is one of the three primary germ cell layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the ectoderm and endoderm , with the mesoderm as the middle layer between them.The mesoderm forms mesenchyme , mesothelium, non-epithelial blood corpuscles and...
, (becomes muscle
Muscle
Muscle is a contractile tissue of animals and is derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells. Muscle cells contain contractile filaments that move past each other and change the size of the cell. They are classified as skeletal, cardiac, or smooth muscles. Their function is to...
, heart
Heart
The heart is a myogenic muscular organ found in all animals with a circulatory system , that is responsible for pumping blood throughout the blood vessels by repeated, rhythmic contractions...
and blood vessel
Blood vessel
The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system that transports blood throughout the body. There are three major types of blood vessels: the arteries, which carry the blood away from the heart; the capillaries, which enable the actual exchange of water and chemicals between the blood and...
s), and the ectoderm
Ectoderm
The "ectoderm" is one of the three primary germ cell layers in the very early embryo. The other two layers are the mesoderm and endoderm , with the ectoderm as the most exterior layer...
(forms the skin and nervous system
Nervous system
The nervous system is an organ system containing a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions of an animal and transmit signals between different parts of its body. In most animals the nervous system consists of two parts, central and peripheral. The central nervous...
).
In his 1954 book, Atlas of Men, Sheldon categorised all possible body types according to a scale ranging from 1 to 7 for each of the three "somatotypes", where the pure "endomorph" is 7–1–1, the pure "mesomorph" 1–7–1 and the pure "ectomorph" scores 1–1–7. From type number, an individual's mental characteristics could supposedly be predicted.
The three types
| Viscerotonia | Somatotonia | Cerebrotonia |
|---|---|---|
| Endomorphy (sphericity) | Mesomorphy (squareness) | Ectomorphy (linearity) |
| The viscerotonic is at the oral-erotic Freudian stage. They are noted for amiability. | Nordics according to Sheldon | Jews according to Sheldon |
There is evidence that different physiques carry cultural stereotypes. For example, one study found that endomorphs are likely to be perceived as slow, sloppy, and lazy. Mesomorphs, in contrast, are typically stereotyped as popular and hardworking, whereas ectomorphs are often viewed as intelligent but fearful. Stereotypes of mesomorphs are generally much more favorable than those of endomorphs. Stereotypes of ectomorphs are somewhat mixed.
Modern assessments
Sheldon's theories had popularity through the 1950s, influencing Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslow
Abraham Harold Maslow was an American professor of psychology at Brandeis University, Brooklyn College, New School for Social Research and Columbia University who created Maslow's hierarchy of needs...
, Aldous Huxley
Aldous Huxley
Aldous Leonard Huxley was an English writer and one of the most prominent members of the famous Huxley family. Best known for his novels including Brave New World and a wide-ranging output of essays, Huxley also edited the magazine Oxford Poetry, and published short stories, poetry, travel...
, and Robert S de Ropp
Robert S de Ropp
Robert Sylvester de Ropp was a biochemist and a researcher and academic in that field. He became a prominent author in the general fields of the realisation of human potential and the search for spiritual enlightenment.-Early life:...
. The majority of scientists today generally consider such theories outdated. Some found the idea of somatotypes reminiscent of eugenics
Eugenics
Eugenics is the "applied science or the bio-social movement which advocates the use of practices aimed at improving the genetic composition of a population", usually referring to human populations. The origins of the concept of eugenics began with certain interpretations of Mendelian inheritance,...
and racial hygiene
Racial hygiene
Racial hygiene was a set of early twentieth century state sanctioned policies by which certain groups of individuals were allowed to procreate and others not, with the expressed purpose of promoting certain characteristics deemed to be particularly desirable...
; they went against the fashionable emphasis on nurture, presenting a ready-made paradigm that had strong resonances with mystical thought.
Sheldon's photographs of naked Yale undergraduates, numbered in the thousands, which had been taken under the umbrella of a pre-existing program for checking student posture, and other similar photographs that he had gathered from programs at other institutes, were eventually destroyed.
The words endomorphic, mesomorphic and ectomorphic are still sometimes used to describe body types, as, for example, in association with weight training
Weight training
Weight training is a common type of strength training for developing the strength and size of skeletal muscles. It uses the weight force of gravity to oppose the force generated by muscle through concentric or eccentric contraction...
aimed at gaining muscle. The psychosomatic linkage is fairly simplistic and is seen as undemonstrated in physiological
Physiology
Physiology is the science of the function of living systems. This includes how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or...
science, but the account of somatotypes is still probably a valid, if limited, way to sort basic body types.
Sheldon himself was more a behavioral psychologist than either an anatomist
Anatomy
Anatomy is a branch of biology and medicine that is the consideration of the structure of living things. It is a general term that includes human anatomy, animal anatomy , and plant anatomy...
or a physiologist
Physiology
Physiology is the science of the function of living systems. This includes how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or...
. His behavioral conclusions were based largely on interviews which he or his students carried out over a long span of time, and the actual psychometric data were often more suggestive than conclusive. The prevalence of kindred ideas in folklore and spiritual philosophy, though, suggests that ideas similar to Sheldon's will continue to be held until they are conclusively proven or disproven.
See also
- AnthropometryAnthropometryAnthropometry refers to the measurement of the human individual...
- SomatopsychicSomatopsychicSomatopsychic is a medical term for the effects of the body on the mind. Somatopsychic is used to describe a body-mind relationship, as does psychosomatic. Psychosomatic, however, refers to the mind's effect on the body.-External links:**...
- Somatotypology
- Typology (anthropology)
Sources
- Sheldon, William H. ♦ The Varieties of Human Physique (An Introduction to Constitutional Psychology) ♦ Harper & Brothers, 1940
- Sheldon, William H. ♦ The Varieties of Temperament (A Psychology of Constitutional Differences) Harper & Brothers, 1942
- Sheldon, William H. ♦ Varieties of Delinquent Youth (An Introduction to Constitutional Psychiatry) ♦ Harper & Brothers, 1949
- Atlas of Men (A Guide for Somatotyping the Adult Male at All Ages) ♦ Harper & Brothers, 1954
- Hartl, Emil M.; Monnelly, Edward P.; Elderkin, Roland D. ♦ Physique and Delinquent Behavior (A Thirty-year Follow-up of William H. Sheldon’s Varieties of Delinquent Youth) ♦ Academic Press, 1982
- Gerrig, Richard; Zimbardo, Phillip G. ♦ Psychology and Life ♦ 7th ed.
External links
- Ectomorph Britannica