Social estates in the Russian Empire
Encyclopedia
Social estates in the Russian Empire were denoted by the term soslovie (sosloviye), which approximately corresponds to the notion of the estate of the realm. The system of sosloviyes was a peculiar system of social groups in the history of the Russian Empire
. In Russian language the terms "сословие" and "состояние" (in the meaning of the civil/legal estate) were used interchangeably.
The Code of the Law of the Russian Empire of 1832, vol. 9, "Laws about Estates" (Законы о состояниях) defined four major estates: dvoryans (nobility
), clergy
, urban dwellers and rural dwellers (peasant
s). Within these, more detailed categories were recognized. See "Russian nobility: Categories" for dvoryans. Clergy was subdivided into "white" (priests) and "black" (monks). Urban dwellers (Городские обыватели) were categorized into потомственные почетные граждане (hereditary distinguished citizens), личные почетные граждане(personal distinguished citizens), merchantry (:ru:купечество), urban commoners (:ru:мещанство), and guild
ed craftspeople
(цеховые ремесленники). There also existed the military estate, which included lower military ranks (higher ranks were associated with the estate of dvoryans), and discharged and indefinite-leave
. Dependent families were usually included into the estate of the head of the household.
Urban commoners included people who had some real estate
in a town, were engaged in some trade, craft, or service, and paid taxes. Subject to these conditions, a person could assign himself into this category, which was hereditary, and one may be excluded from it in the court of law or by the urban commoner's self-government (мещанская управа).
The category of rural dwellers (сельские обыватели) included a special estate of cossack
s, often also included in the military estate, for obvious reasons. Some rural dwellers had permanent residence in towns, and they were correspondingly classified as "urban peasants" (городовые крестьяне) and "urban cossackhood" (городовое казачество). The rural dwellers category also included the inorodtsy
(инородцы) estate, that included non-Russian and non-Orthodox native peoples of Siberia, Central Asia or Caucasus. An inorodets who converted into Orthodox Christianity was excluded from this estate and included into one of the other ones, most often peasantry.
A separate category, not assigned to any of the above estates were raznochintsy
(literally "persons of miscellaneous ranks", but in fact having no rank at all).
A separate stratification existed for governmental bureaucracy, who were classified according to the Table of Ranks. The higher ranks belonged to the sosloviye of dvoryanstvo, while the indication of a lower rank of a person was comparable to that of the indication of a soslovie for various formal purposes (e.g., for the Russian Empire Census
).
Finally, in Siberia, the estate of "exiled" was officially recognized, with the subcategory of "exiled nobility".
The institution of distinguished citizenship (or two categories) was introduced by the manifesto of Nicholas I of Russia
of April 10, 1832. The distinguished citizens ranked above merchantry and below nobility. They were freed of personal taxes, military service obligation (рекрутская повинность), corporal punishment
s, etc. Distinguished citizenship was available for persons with a scientific or scholar degree, graduates of certain schools, people of arts and destinguished merchants and industrialists subject to certain conditions.
The estates were classified into two major groups: taxable estates (податные сословия), i.e., which had to pay the personal tax, and non-taxable ones.
With the development of capitalism
and the abolishment of the serfdom
in Russia in the second half of the 19th century the estate paradigm no longer corresponded to the actual socio-economical stratificstion of the population, but the terminology was in use until the Russian Revolution of 1917
. At the same time the legal and governmental system gradually became estate-independent, with the property grade (имущественный ценз) of a person playing the decisive role.
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
. In Russian language the terms "сословие" and "состояние" (in the meaning of the civil/legal estate) were used interchangeably.
The Code of the Law of the Russian Empire of 1832, vol. 9, "Laws about Estates" (Законы о состояниях) defined four major estates: dvoryans (nobility
Nobility
Nobility is a social class which possesses more acknowledged privileges or eminence than members of most other classes in a society, membership therein typically being hereditary. The privileges associated with nobility may constitute substantial advantages over or relative to non-nobles, or may be...
), clergy
Clergy
Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given religion. A clergyman, churchman or cleric is a member of the clergy, especially one who is a priest, preacher, pastor, or other religious professional....
, urban dwellers and rural dwellers (peasant
Peasant
A peasant is an agricultural worker who generally tend to be poor and homeless-Etymology:The word is derived from 15th century French païsant meaning one from the pays, or countryside, ultimately from the Latin pagus, or outlying administrative district.- Position in society :Peasants typically...
s). Within these, more detailed categories were recognized. See "Russian nobility: Categories" for dvoryans. Clergy was subdivided into "white" (priests) and "black" (monks). Urban dwellers (Городские обыватели) were categorized into потомственные почетные граждане (hereditary distinguished citizens), личные почетные граждане(personal distinguished citizens), merchantry (:ru:купечество), urban commoners (:ru:мещанство), and guild
Guild
A guild is an association of craftsmen in a particular trade. The earliest types of guild were formed as confraternities of workers. They were organized in a manner something between a trade union, a cartel, and a secret society...
ed craftspeople
Artisan
An artisan is a skilled manual worker who makes items that may be functional or strictly decorative, including furniture, clothing, jewellery, household items, and tools...
(цеховые ремесленники). There also existed the military estate, which included lower military ranks (higher ranks were associated with the estate of dvoryans), and discharged and indefinite-leave
Leave (military)
In military, leave is a permission to be away from one's unit, either for a specified or unspecified period of time.The term AWOL, standing for absent without leave, is a term for desertion used in armed forces of many English speaking countries....
. Dependent families were usually included into the estate of the head of the household.
Urban commoners included people who had some real estate
Real estate
In general use, esp. North American, 'real estate' is taken to mean "Property consisting of land and the buildings on it, along with its natural resources such as crops, minerals, or water; immovable property of this nature; an interest vested in this; an item of real property; buildings or...
in a town, were engaged in some trade, craft, or service, and paid taxes. Subject to these conditions, a person could assign himself into this category, which was hereditary, and one may be excluded from it in the court of law or by the urban commoner's self-government (мещанская управа).
The category of rural dwellers (сельские обыватели) included a special estate of cossack
Cossack
Cossacks are a group of predominantly East Slavic people who originally were members of democratic, semi-military communities in what is today Ukraine and Southern Russia inhabiting sparsely populated areas and islands in the lower Dnieper and Don basins and who played an important role in the...
s, often also included in the military estate, for obvious reasons. Some rural dwellers had permanent residence in towns, and they were correspondingly classified as "urban peasants" (городовые крестьяне) and "urban cossackhood" (городовое казачество). The rural dwellers category also included the inorodtsy
Inorodtsy
Inorodtsy , is a legal term used in the Russian Empire in reference to non-Slavic population of the Empire. Literally meaning "of different descent/nation", it is sometimes translated as allogeneous and sometimes as "aliens"...
(инородцы) estate, that included non-Russian and non-Orthodox native peoples of Siberia, Central Asia or Caucasus. An inorodets who converted into Orthodox Christianity was excluded from this estate and included into one of the other ones, most often peasantry.
A separate category, not assigned to any of the above estates were raznochintsy
Raznochintsy
Raznochintsy was an official term introduced in the Code of Law of the Russian Empire in the 17th century to define a social estate that included the lower court and governmental ranks, children of personal dvoryans, and discharged military, The category of raznochintsy grew significantly during...
(literally "persons of miscellaneous ranks", but in fact having no rank at all).
A separate stratification existed for governmental bureaucracy, who were classified according to the Table of Ranks. The higher ranks belonged to the sosloviye of dvoryanstvo, while the indication of a lower rank of a person was comparable to that of the indication of a soslovie for various formal purposes (e.g., for the Russian Empire Census
Russian Empire Census
The Russian Imperial Census of 1897 was the first and the only census carried out in the Russian Empire . It recorded demographic data as of ....
).
Finally, in Siberia, the estate of "exiled" was officially recognized, with the subcategory of "exiled nobility".
The institution of distinguished citizenship (or two categories) was introduced by the manifesto of Nicholas I of Russia
Nicholas I of Russia
Nicholas I , was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855, known as one of the most reactionary of the Russian monarchs. On the eve of his death, the Russian Empire reached its historical zenith spanning over 20 million square kilometers...
of April 10, 1832. The distinguished citizens ranked above merchantry and below nobility. They were freed of personal taxes, military service obligation (рекрутская повинность), corporal punishment
Corporal punishment
Corporal punishment is a form of physical punishment that involves the deliberate infliction of pain as retribution for an offence, or for the purpose of disciplining or reforming a wrongdoer, or to deter attitudes or behaviour deemed unacceptable...
s, etc. Distinguished citizenship was available for persons with a scientific or scholar degree, graduates of certain schools, people of arts and destinguished merchants and industrialists subject to certain conditions.
The estates were classified into two major groups: taxable estates (податные сословия), i.e., which had to pay the personal tax, and non-taxable ones.
With the development of capitalism
Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system that became dominant in the Western world following the demise of feudalism. There is no consensus on the precise definition nor on how the term should be used as a historical category...
and the abolishment of the serfdom
Emancipation reform of 1861
The Emancipation Reform of 1861 in Russia was the first and most important of liberal reforms effected during the reign of Alexander II of Russia. The reform, together with a related reform in 1861, amounted to the liquidation of serf dependence previously suffered by peasants of the Russian Empire...
in Russia in the second half of the 19th century the estate paradigm no longer corresponded to the actual socio-economical stratificstion of the population, but the terminology was in use until the Russian Revolution of 1917
Russian Revolution of 1917
The Russian Revolution is the collective term for a series of revolutions in Russia in 1917, which destroyed the Tsarist autocracy and led to the creation of the Soviet Union. The Tsar was deposed and replaced by a provisional government in the first revolution of February 1917...
. At the same time the legal and governmental system gradually became estate-independent, with the property grade (имущественный ценз) of a person playing the decisive role.