Social ecological model
Encyclopedia
The Social Ecology Model, also called Social Ecological Perspective, is a framework to examine the multiple effects and interrelatedness of social elements in an environment. SEM can provide a theoretical framework to analyze various contexts in multiple types of research
and in conflict
communication
(Oetzel, Ting-Toomey, & Rinderle, 2006). Social ecology
is the study of people in an environment and the influences on one another (Hawley, 1950). This model allows for the integration (Oetzel, Ting-Toomey, & Rinderle, 2006) of multiple levels and contexts to establish the big picture in conflict communication, health or physical activity contexts. Research that focuses on any one level underestimates the effects of other contexts (Klein et al., 1999; Rousseau & House, 1994; Stokols, 1996). SEM is primarily a qualitative research model to conduct field observations; however, it has and can also be utilized in experimental settings...
’s (1977, 1979) Ecological Systems Theory
which divides factors into four levels: macro-, exo-, meso-, and micro-, which describe influences as intercultural, community, organizational, and interpersonal or individual. Traditionally many research theorists have considered only a dichotomy of perspectives, either micro (individual behavior) or macro (media or cultural influences). Bronfenbrenner’s perspective (1979) was founded on the person, the environment, and the continuous interaction of the two. This interaction constantly evolved and developed both components. However, Bronfenbrenner realized it was not only the environment directly affecting the person, but that there were layers in between, which all had resulting impacts on the next level. His research began with the primary purpose of understanding human development and behavior. Bronfenbrenner’s work was an extension from Kurt Lewin
’s (1935) classic equation showing that behavior is a function of the person and the environment.
Bronfenbrenner (1979) considered the individual, organization, community, and culture to be nested factors, like Russian dolls. Each echelon operates fully within the next larger sphere. Although Bronfenbrenner first coined the phrase Ecological Systems Theory, it is necessary to mention that Amos H. Hawley (1950) conducted a significant amount of research in this field as well, along with many other philosophers, including his colleague, R. D. McKenzie. Hawley’s work on the “interrelatedness of life” in his book, Human Ecology (1950), was grounded in Charles Darwin
’s writings on the “web of life”.
approach to understanding development that occurs in various spheres due to actions in different systems. There are many effects that occur from cross-level influences and relationships between and among levels that SEM addresses. Relationships include parallels or isomorphisms and discontinuities or cross-level effects (Klein et al., 1999; Rousseau and House, 1994). The single direction arrows indicate cross-level effects, whereas the circular arrows indicate isomorphisms or discontinuities.
(Gregson, 2001) which may include roles that a person plays (i.e. mother, father, sister, brother, child, etc.) or characteristics they have in common. These interpersonal attributes are strong as to how an individual perceives oneself. These qualities and factors can be learned, as in membership to a group, but many are ingrained (e.g., ethnicity, gender). In the interpersonal sphere, there are also many components of the individual, including psychological and cognitive factors, like personality, knowledge, beliefs (Gregson, 2001). The individual in his or her own microsystem is constantly shaped, not only by the environment, but by any encounter or other individual they come in contact with. This shaping is well explored in child development
, as it would be unreasonable to believe a child is solely a product of the societal environment. There are multiple, simultaneous influences in child behavior and learning including culture, school, teacher, parental support and education level, involvement in extracurricular activities, etc. Examples of microsystems outside the self also include groups of friends, family, unorganized athletics, or social clubs.
, where employees may wear pajamas to the office. The organizational component is especially influential with younger, more impressionable employees, as it helps to shape the ethics and expectations of a typical organization for these individuals. Examples include schools, companies, churches, and sports teams. Mesosystems are essentially the norm forming component of a group or organization, and the individual is an active participant in this group or organization. Bronfenbrenner (1979) also claimed that the richer the medium for communication in this system, the more influential it is on the microsystem.
n, while the next level up (macro) would be an American
. However, it does not have to be associated with any physical or spatial relationships. Another example could be membership in special interest groups or political affiliations. Exosystems are essentially any setting which affects the individual, although the individual is not required to be an active participant (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
, Western culture
, Military
, Islam
, and Christianity
. For instance, the macrosystem of Communism is a Marxist philosophy that believes that wealth should be shared in the macrosystem. A Communist country, such as Cuba
(exo), governs and regulates the environment within which corporations (meso) and society or individuals (micro) exist. Media
plays a significant role on all levels, as it communicates information and assists in the development of expectations for all individuals in the respective culture.
. The media additionally plays a significant role in reinforcing these stereotypes (Oetzel, Ting- Toomey, & Rinderle, 2006). Top-down effects are essentially the most prominent of any of the social ecological components.
has increased the accessibility of information to reach a wider audience in a Communist nation. Guerrero and La Valley (2006) recognize emotions are caused by feelings (i.e. anger, guilt, jealousy, greed, etc.) and that these feelings impact events likely to occur. The psychological instability of the shooter in the Virginia Tech incident demonstrates microcosms affecting macrocosms.
play in cultures, organizations, community, and interpersonal conflicts? McLeroy et al. (1988, p. 354) noted that the “ecological perspective implies reciprocal causation between the individual and the environment” which essentially defines interactive effects. Social work itself deals with a lot of the ecological systems that are a main point on most cases.
In Zimbardo’s experiment (Haney, Banks, & Zimbardo, 1973) in 1971, they randomly assigned subjects to be either prison guards or prisoners. This prison was actually a basement at Stanford University
, and the subjects were actually volunteers who responded to a newspaper advertisement. Essentially the study was conducted to observe the interpersonal dynamics in a prison environment. The individuals immediately began to take their respective roles very seriously, almost as a self-fulfilling prophecy. The prisoners rioted, and the guards hassled and intimidated the prisoners to maintain order. Applying the Social Ecological Model, top-down and interactive effects created groups that were very unlike the individuals within the mesosystems. It is difficult to believe that all of the individuals involved in the study were truly sadistic or rebellious prior to the experiment.
Milgram Experiment
Stanley Milgram
’s studies were conducted in 1961-1962 at Yale
http://www.yale.edu/ on subjects that answered a newspaper advertisement. The objective of his research was to observe the power of authority in following orders (Milgram, 1963). This experiment was conducted in response to the beginning of the Eichmann trials. Adolf Eichmann
was a high ranking officer of the Nazi Party. He was on trial for war crimes and crimes against humanity. Was he simply following orders? In Milgram’s experiment the subjects were assigned to the role as the “teacher” and were required to administer a shock to the “student” to facilitate learning. The “teacher” was ordered to administer increasing and almost fatal electric shocks to the “student” whenever they proved an incorrect response. The experimenter sat in the same room as the “teacher” and observed the learning process. In actuality, the “student” was actually a researcher and no real electric shock was ever administered. These studies demonstrated that individuals can easily be persuaded to inflict harm if they are ordered to do so. These individuals were a product of the mesosystems they participated in.
s, many conflicts are implicit, while some are explicit. The existence of multiple stakeholders, including company leadership
, employees, shareholders, and customers has tended to blur the corporate mission and increase conflict. There are many interactive and cross-level effects when observing a corporation from an external perspective. Many corporations feel as though their duty is to create financial value for the shareholders, while they still have a responsibility to the customers. In some industries, it is difficult to discern when the loyalty is shifted too far towards shareholders or employees in lieu of the customers. The operating environment (or what other companies were doing) had created some of the ambiguity in corporate ethics in the late 1990s. There was obviously a requirement for a higher prevalence of regulatory authorities and consumer advocacy groups (consumer protection
) due to some inappropriate and unethical decisions. The decision to require Sarbanes-Oxley compliance is an excellent example of how individuals and organizations created a need for increased regulation in a bottom-up approach.
, conceived by Ellsworth Huntington
, is an economic theory that is highly dependent on the ecological environment and geography
. Essentially from a top-down approach, the environment dictates a considerable amount to the lifestyle of the individual and the economy
of the country. If the region is mountainous or arid and there is little land for agriculture
, the country typically will not prosper as much as another country. The theory fundamentally states economics, human habits, and cultural characteristics are shaped by geography. In Neoclassical economics
, output is a function of natural resources
, human resources, capital resources, and technology (Alfred Marshall
, 1890). Technology is a direct effect of an entrepreneurial mind or individual. This would indicate that there are also bottom-up effects in economics.
or risk occurs, what is the best way to ensure the safety of all individuals which may potentially be affected? The SEM could assist the researcher to analyze the timing of when the information is received and identify the receivers and stakeholders. This situation is an environmental influence that may be very far reaching. The individual’s education level, understanding, and affluence may dictate what information he or she receives and processes and through which medium. If the information receiver actually alters the context of the message and medium to communicate more appropriately with the individual stakeholders, this would be a bottom-up effect.
. To prevent illnesses, a person should avoid an environment in which they may be more susceptible to contracting a virus or where their immune system would be weakened. This also includes possibly removing oneself from a workgroup or organization if there are breathing or inhalation risks (i.e. toxic pollutants, passive smoking
) or avoiding a sick coworker. Some environments are particularly conducive to health benefits. Surrounding yourself with physically fit people will potentially motivate you to become more active, diet, or work out at the gym. The government banning trans fat
may have a positive top-down effect on the health of all individuals in that state or country. There have been many studies done on obesity
prevention, and everything from access to parks and playgrounds to cultural norms
to self-efficacy
affect the tendency for an individual to become obese.
is making decisions, and playing politics is all about appeasing all the parties involved while still reaching the ultimate goal. A decision may be required of an individual, organization, community, or country. A decision a congressman makes affects anyone in his or her jurisdiction. If one makes decision not to vote for the President of the United States
, one has given oneself no voice in the election. If many other individuals choose not to voice their opinion and/or vote, they have inadvertently allowed a majority of others to make the decision for them. On the international level, if the leadership of the U.S. decides to occupy a country in the Middle East, it not only affects the leadership. It also affects U.S. service members, their families, and the communities they come from. If the U.S. is spending money on a political conflict, the value of the U.S. dollar
may be adversely affected. There are multiple cross-level and interactive effects of a decision. As the action of one jihad
ist may potentially disrupt the lives of hundreds of service members, their respective families, the unit to which they belong, the community, and the nation.
Research
Research can be defined as the scientific search for knowledge, or as any systematic investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop new theories, usually using a scientific method...
and in conflict
Conflict resolution
Conflict resolution is conceptualized as the methods and processes involved in facilitating the peaceful ending of some social conflict. Often, committed group members attempt to resolve group conflicts by actively communicating information about their conflicting motives or ideologies to the rest...
communication
Communication
Communication is the activity of conveying meaningful information. Communication requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast...
(Oetzel, Ting-Toomey, & Rinderle, 2006). Social ecology
Social ecology
Social ecology is a philosophy developed by Murray Bookchin in the 1960s.It holds that present ecological problems are rooted in deep-seated social problems, particularly in dominatory hierarchical political and social systems. These have resulted in an uncritical acceptance of an overly...
is the study of people in an environment and the influences on one another (Hawley, 1950). This model allows for the integration (Oetzel, Ting-Toomey, & Rinderle, 2006) of multiple levels and contexts to establish the big picture in conflict communication, health or physical activity contexts. Research that focuses on any one level underestimates the effects of other contexts (Klein et al., 1999; Rousseau & House, 1994; Stokols, 1996). SEM is primarily a qualitative research model to conduct field observations; however, it has and can also be utilized in experimental settings...
History
There are several adaptations of the Social Ecological Model; however, the initial and most utilized version is Urie BronfenbrennerUrie Bronfenbrenner
Urie Bronfenbrenner was a Russian American psychologist, known for developing his Ecological Systems Theory, and as a co-founder of the Head Start program in the United States for disadvantaged pre-school children....
’s (1977, 1979) Ecological Systems Theory
Ecological Systems Theory
Ecological systems theory, also called development in context or human ecology theory, specifies four types of nested environmental systems, with bi-directional influences within and between the systems.- Overview :...
which divides factors into four levels: macro-, exo-, meso-, and micro-, which describe influences as intercultural, community, organizational, and interpersonal or individual. Traditionally many research theorists have considered only a dichotomy of perspectives, either micro (individual behavior) or macro (media or cultural influences). Bronfenbrenner’s perspective (1979) was founded on the person, the environment, and the continuous interaction of the two. This interaction constantly evolved and developed both components. However, Bronfenbrenner realized it was not only the environment directly affecting the person, but that there were layers in between, which all had resulting impacts on the next level. His research began with the primary purpose of understanding human development and behavior. Bronfenbrenner’s work was an extension from Kurt Lewin
Kurt Lewin
Kurt Zadek Lewin was a German-American psychologist, known as one of the modern pioneers of social, organizational, and applied psychology....
’s (1935) classic equation showing that behavior is a function of the person and the environment.
Bronfenbrenner (1979) considered the individual, organization, community, and culture to be nested factors, like Russian dolls. Each echelon operates fully within the next larger sphere. Although Bronfenbrenner first coined the phrase Ecological Systems Theory, it is necessary to mention that Amos H. Hawley (1950) conducted a significant amount of research in this field as well, along with many other philosophers, including his colleague, R. D. McKenzie. Hawley’s work on the “interrelatedness of life” in his book, Human Ecology (1950), was grounded in Charles Darwin
Charles Darwin
Charles Robert Darwin FRS was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection.He published his theory...
’s writings on the “web of life”.
Conceptual Framework
SEM is essentially a Systems TheorySystems theory
Systems theory is the transdisciplinary study of systems in general, with the goal of elucidating principles that can be applied to all types of systems at all nesting levels in all fields of research...
approach to understanding development that occurs in various spheres due to actions in different systems. There are many effects that occur from cross-level influences and relationships between and among levels that SEM addresses. Relationships include parallels or isomorphisms and discontinuities or cross-level effects (Klein et al., 1999; Rousseau and House, 1994). The single direction arrows indicate cross-level effects, whereas the circular arrows indicate isomorphisms or discontinuities.
Micro-
Microsystems consist of individual or interpersonal features and those aspects of groups that comprise the social identitySocial identity
A social identity is the portion of an individual's self-concept derived from perceived membership in a relevant social group. As originally formulated by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s and 80s, social identity theory introduced the concept of a social identity as a way in which to...
(Gregson, 2001) which may include roles that a person plays (i.e. mother, father, sister, brother, child, etc.) or characteristics they have in common. These interpersonal attributes are strong as to how an individual perceives oneself. These qualities and factors can be learned, as in membership to a group, but many are ingrained (e.g., ethnicity, gender). In the interpersonal sphere, there are also many components of the individual, including psychological and cognitive factors, like personality, knowledge, beliefs (Gregson, 2001). The individual in his or her own microsystem is constantly shaped, not only by the environment, but by any encounter or other individual they come in contact with. This shaping is well explored in child development
Child development
Child development stages describe theoretical milestones of child development. Many stage models of development have been proposed, used as working concepts and in some cases asserted as nativist theories....
, as it would be unreasonable to believe a child is solely a product of the societal environment. There are multiple, simultaneous influences in child behavior and learning including culture, school, teacher, parental support and education level, involvement in extracurricular activities, etc. Examples of microsystems outside the self also include groups of friends, family, unorganized athletics, or social clubs.
Meso-
Mesosystems are the organizational or institutional factors that shape or structure the environment within which the individual and interpersonal relations occur (Gregson, 2001). These aspects can be rules, policies, and acceptable business etiquette within a more formal organization. There are some organizations that foster entirely different atmospheres than other corporations, i.e. GoogleGoogle
Google Inc. is an American multinational public corporation invested in Internet search, cloud computing, and advertising technologies. Google hosts and develops a number of Internet-based services and products, and generates profit primarily from advertising through its AdWords program...
, where employees may wear pajamas to the office. The organizational component is especially influential with younger, more impressionable employees, as it helps to shape the ethics and expectations of a typical organization for these individuals. Examples include schools, companies, churches, and sports teams. Mesosystems are essentially the norm forming component of a group or organization, and the individual is an active participant in this group or organization. Bronfenbrenner (1979) also claimed that the richer the medium for communication in this system, the more influential it is on the microsystem.
Exo
Exosystems refer to the community level influence, including fairly established norms, standards, and social networks (Gregson, 2001). There will likely be many organizations and interpersonal relationships that compose the community, and this web of organizations and relationships creates the community. The community is larger than the meso-; however, it is considerably smaller than the respective nation or culture it composes. The community level in a geographic sense, for example, may be Midwestern or IowaIowa
Iowa is a state located in the Midwestern United States, an area often referred to as the "American Heartland". It derives its name from the Ioway people, one of the many American Indian tribes that occupied the state at the time of European exploration. Iowa was a part of the French colony of New...
n, while the next level up (macro) would be an American
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. However, it does not have to be associated with any physical or spatial relationships. Another example could be membership in special interest groups or political affiliations. Exosystems are essentially any setting which affects the individual, although the individual is not required to be an active participant (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).
Macro-
Macrosystems are the cultural contexts (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), not solely geographically or physically, but emotionally and ideologically. These influences are more easily seen than the other factors, mainly due to the magnitude of the impact. Examples of significant intercultural effects include CommunismCommunism
Communism is a social, political and economic ideology that aims at the establishment of a classless, moneyless, revolutionary and stateless socialist society structured upon common ownership of the means of production...
, Western culture
Western culture
Western culture, sometimes equated with Western civilization or European civilization, refers to cultures of European origin and is used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, religious beliefs, political systems, and specific artifacts and...
, Military
Military
A military is an organization authorized by its greater society to use lethal force, usually including use of weapons, in defending its country by combating actual or perceived threats. The military may have additional functions of use to its greater society, such as advancing a political agenda e.g...
, Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
, and Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
. For instance, the macrosystem of Communism is a Marxist philosophy that believes that wealth should be shared in the macrosystem. A Communist country, such as Cuba
Cuba
The Republic of Cuba is an island nation in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city...
(exo), governs and regulates the environment within which corporations (meso) and society or individuals (micro) exist. Media
Mass media
Mass media refers collectively to all media technologies which are intended to reach a large audience via mass communication. Broadcast media transmit their information electronically and comprise of television, film and radio, movies, CDs, DVDs and some other gadgets like cameras or video consoles...
plays a significant role on all levels, as it communicates information and assists in the development of expectations for all individuals in the respective culture.
Isomorphisms & Discontinuities
Isomorphisms are parallels in the impact on one level and the resulting impact on another level (Oetzel, Ting- Toomey, & Rinderle, 2006). Researchers studying isomorphic models expect to see an equal effect in both magnitude and direction when at least one influence level shifts. Discontinuities are essentially the antonym of isomorphisms. A discontinuity is an effect on one level or group which produces an unequal, potentially in the opposite direction, impact on at least one more level.Top-down Effects
The consideration of top-down effects (McLeroy et al., 1988; Stokols, 1996) establishes that environmental effects shape individual behavior. The nested factors are essentially influenced by the external influences that embody these factors. Community and organizational factors often determine how individuals will respond in crisis situations (Oetzel, Ting- Toomey, & Rinderle, 2006). There is a program called OK-FIRST http://okfirst.ocs.ou.edu/, which is an outreach project of the Oklahoma Climatological Survey http://www.ocs.ou.edu/ and the Oklahoma Mesonet http://www.mesonet.org/ to educate the community and public officials to help individuals respond in the appropriate way during a weather-related risk. Ethnicity (Oetzel, Ting- Toomey, & Rinderle, 2006) and historical relationships also shape individual conflict behavior. This is obviously true in many situations observed in the conflict in the Middle EastMiddle East
The Middle East is a region that encompasses Western Asia and Northern Africa. It is often used as a synonym for Near East, in opposition to Far East...
. The media additionally plays a significant role in reinforcing these stereotypes (Oetzel, Ting- Toomey, & Rinderle, 2006). Top-down effects are essentially the most prominent of any of the social ecological components.
Bottom-up Effects
Bottom-up effects describe how individuals or community affect higher levels, as in how individuals form alliances or coalitions to accomplish personal goals (Oetzel, Ting- Toomey, & Rinderle, 2006). There is also an impact in cultures due to global corporations’ presence in some countries. For instance, Google ChinaGoogle China
Google China is a subsidiary of Google, Inc., the world's largest Internet search engine company. Google China ranks as the number 2 search engine in the People's Republic of China, after Baidu...
has increased the accessibility of information to reach a wider audience in a Communist nation. Guerrero and La Valley (2006) recognize emotions are caused by feelings (i.e. anger, guilt, jealousy, greed, etc.) and that these feelings impact events likely to occur. The psychological instability of the shooter in the Virginia Tech incident demonstrates microcosms affecting macrocosms.
Interactive Effects
Interactive effects are interdependent and occur simultaneously at multiple levels (Rousseau and House, 1994). For instance in culturally diverse workgroups, there would likely be conflicts between group members, interaction effects in completing the goal of workgroup for the organization, and some learning at the individual level. Another excellent question from Oetzel, Ting- Toomey, & Rinderle (2006) is what role does technologyTechnology
Technology is the making, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to solve a problem or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, machinery, and procedures. The word technology comes ;...
play in cultures, organizations, community, and interpersonal conflicts? McLeroy et al. (1988, p. 354) noted that the “ecological perspective implies reciprocal causation between the individual and the environment” which essentially defines interactive effects. Social work itself deals with a lot of the ecological systems that are a main point on most cases.
Empirical Studies
Stanford Prison ExperimentStanford prison experiment
The Stanford prison experiment was a study of the psychological effects of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. The experiment was conducted from August 14th-20th, 1971, by a team of researchers led by psychology professor Philip Zimbardo at Stanford University...
In Zimbardo’s experiment (Haney, Banks, & Zimbardo, 1973) in 1971, they randomly assigned subjects to be either prison guards or prisoners. This prison was actually a basement at Stanford University
Stanford University
The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is a private research university on an campus located near Palo Alto, California. It is situated in the northwestern Santa Clara Valley on the San Francisco Peninsula, approximately northwest of San...
, and the subjects were actually volunteers who responded to a newspaper advertisement. Essentially the study was conducted to observe the interpersonal dynamics in a prison environment. The individuals immediately began to take their respective roles very seriously, almost as a self-fulfilling prophecy. The prisoners rioted, and the guards hassled and intimidated the prisoners to maintain order. Applying the Social Ecological Model, top-down and interactive effects created groups that were very unlike the individuals within the mesosystems. It is difficult to believe that all of the individuals involved in the study were truly sadistic or rebellious prior to the experiment.
Milgram Experiment
Milgram experiment
The Milgram experiment on obedience to authority figures was a series of notable social psychology experiments conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram, which measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that...
Stanley Milgram
Stanley Milgram
Stanley Milgram was an American social psychologist most notable for his controversial study known as the Milgram Experiment. The study was conducted in the 1960s during Milgram's professorship at Yale...
’s studies were conducted in 1961-1962 at Yale
YALE
RapidMiner, formerly YALE , is an environment for machine learning, data mining, text mining, predictive analytics, and business analytics. It is used for research, education, training, rapid prototyping, application development, and industrial applications...
http://www.yale.edu/ on subjects that answered a newspaper advertisement. The objective of his research was to observe the power of authority in following orders (Milgram, 1963). This experiment was conducted in response to the beginning of the Eichmann trials. Adolf Eichmann
Adolf Eichmann
Adolf Otto Eichmann was a German Nazi and SS-Obersturmbannführer and one of the major organizers of the Holocaust...
was a high ranking officer of the Nazi Party. He was on trial for war crimes and crimes against humanity. Was he simply following orders? In Milgram’s experiment the subjects were assigned to the role as the “teacher” and were required to administer a shock to the “student” to facilitate learning. The “teacher” was ordered to administer increasing and almost fatal electric shocks to the “student” whenever they proved an incorrect response. The experimenter sat in the same room as the “teacher” and observed the learning process. In actuality, the “student” was actually a researcher and no real electric shock was ever administered. These studies demonstrated that individuals can easily be persuaded to inflict harm if they are ordered to do so. These individuals were a product of the mesosystems they participated in.
SEM Applications in multiple contexts
Below are only a few of the abundant contexts in which the SEM could be applied. SEM applied to a problem or situation can provide a vivid, detailed snapshot or framework to analyze the inputs on various levels and the resulting impacts.Corporate ethics
In the midst of corporate scandalCorporate scandal
A corporate scandal is a scandal involving allegations of unethical behavior by people acting within or on behalf of a corporation. A corporate scandal sometimes involves accounting fraud of some sort...
s, many conflicts are implicit, while some are explicit. The existence of multiple stakeholders, including company leadership
Leadership
Leadership has been described as the “process of social influence in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task". Other in-depth definitions of leadership have also emerged.-Theories:...
, employees, shareholders, and customers has tended to blur the corporate mission and increase conflict. There are many interactive and cross-level effects when observing a corporation from an external perspective. Many corporations feel as though their duty is to create financial value for the shareholders, while they still have a responsibility to the customers. In some industries, it is difficult to discern when the loyalty is shifted too far towards shareholders or employees in lieu of the customers. The operating environment (or what other companies were doing) had created some of the ambiguity in corporate ethics in the late 1990s. There was obviously a requirement for a higher prevalence of regulatory authorities and consumer advocacy groups (consumer protection
Consumer protection
Consumer protection laws designed to ensure fair trade competition and the free flow of truthful information in the marketplace. The laws are designed to prevent businesses that engage in fraud or specified unfair practices from gaining an advantage over competitors and may provide additional...
) due to some inappropriate and unethical decisions. The decision to require Sarbanes-Oxley compliance is an excellent example of how individuals and organizations created a need for increased regulation in a bottom-up approach.
Economics
Geographic or environmental determinismEnvironmental determinism
Environmental determinism, also known as climatic determinism or geographical determinism, is the view that the physical environment, rather than social conditions, determines culture...
, conceived by Ellsworth Huntington
Ellsworth Huntington
Ellsworth Huntington was a professor of geography at Yale University during the early 20th century, known for his studies on climatic determinism, economic growth and economic geography...
, is an economic theory that is highly dependent on the ecological environment and geography
Geography
Geography is the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. A literal translation would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person to use the word "geography" was Eratosthenes...
. Essentially from a top-down approach, the environment dictates a considerable amount to the lifestyle of the individual and the economy
Economy
An economy consists of the economic system of a country or other area; the labor, capital and land resources; and the manufacturing, trade, distribution, and consumption of goods and services of that area...
of the country. If the region is mountainous or arid and there is little land for agriculture
Agriculture
Agriculture is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi and other life forms for food, fiber, and other products used to sustain life. Agriculture was the key implement in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the...
, the country typically will not prosper as much as another country. The theory fundamentally states economics, human habits, and cultural characteristics are shaped by geography. In Neoclassical economics
Neoclassical economics
Neoclassical economics is a term variously used for approaches to economics focusing on the determination of prices, outputs, and income distributions in markets through supply and demand, often mediated through a hypothesized maximization of utility by income-constrained individuals and of profits...
, output is a function of natural resources
Natural Resources
Natural Resources is a soul album released by Motown girl group Martha Reeves and the Vandellas in 1970 on the Gordy label. The album is significant for the Vietnam War ballad "I Should Be Proud" and the slow jam, "Love Guess Who"...
, human resources, capital resources, and technology (Alfred Marshall
Alfred Marshall
Alfred Marshall was an Englishman and one of the most influential economists of his time. His book, Principles of Economics , was the dominant economic textbook in England for many years...
, 1890). Technology is a direct effect of an entrepreneurial mind or individual. This would indicate that there are also bottom-up effects in economics.
Risk communication
When a natural disasterNatural disaster
A natural disaster is the effect of a natural hazard . It leads to financial, environmental or human losses...
or risk occurs, what is the best way to ensure the safety of all individuals which may potentially be affected? The SEM could assist the researcher to analyze the timing of when the information is received and identify the receivers and stakeholders. This situation is an environmental influence that may be very far reaching. The individual’s education level, understanding, and affluence may dictate what information he or she receives and processes and through which medium. If the information receiver actually alters the context of the message and medium to communicate more appropriately with the individual stakeholders, this would be a bottom-up effect.
Health
There are many ecological factors that potentially improve or harm a personal’s physical healthHealth
Health is the level of functional or metabolic efficiency of a living being. In humans, it is the general condition of a person's mind, body and spirit, usually meaning to be free from illness, injury or pain...
. To prevent illnesses, a person should avoid an environment in which they may be more susceptible to contracting a virus or where their immune system would be weakened. This also includes possibly removing oneself from a workgroup or organization if there are breathing or inhalation risks (i.e. toxic pollutants, passive smoking
Passive smoking
Passive smoking is the inhalation of smoke, called secondhand smoke or environmental tobacco smoke , from tobacco products used by others. It occurs when tobacco smoke permeates any environment, causing its inhalation by people within that environment. Exposure to secondhand tobacco smoke causes...
) or avoiding a sick coworker. Some environments are particularly conducive to health benefits. Surrounding yourself with physically fit people will potentially motivate you to become more active, diet, or work out at the gym. The government banning trans fat
Trans fat
Trans fat is the common name for unsaturated fat with trans-isomer fatty acid. Because the term refers to the configuration of a double carbon-carbon bond, trans fats are sometimes monounsaturated or polyunsaturated, but never saturated....
may have a positive top-down effect on the health of all individuals in that state or country. There have been many studies done on obesity
Obesity
Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may have an adverse effect on health, leading to reduced life expectancy and/or increased health problems...
prevention, and everything from access to parks and playgrounds to cultural norms
Norm (sociology)
Social norms are the accepted behaviors within a society or group. This sociological and social psychological term has been defined as "the rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values, beliefs, attitudes and behaviors. These rules may be explicit or implicit...
to self-efficacy
Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is a term used in psychology, roughly corresponding to a person's belief in their own competence.It has been defined as the belief that one is capable of performing in a certain manner to attain certain set of goals. It is believed that our personalized ideas of self-efficacy affect...
affect the tendency for an individual to become obese.
Political conflict
The act of politicsPolitics
Politics is a process by which groups of people make collective decisions. The term is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental or state affairs, including behavior within civil governments, but also applies to institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the...
is making decisions, and playing politics is all about appeasing all the parties involved while still reaching the ultimate goal. A decision may be required of an individual, organization, community, or country. A decision a congressman makes affects anyone in his or her jurisdiction. If one makes decision not to vote for the President of the United States
President of the United States
The President of the United States of America is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president leads the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces....
, one has given oneself no voice in the election. If many other individuals choose not to voice their opinion and/or vote, they have inadvertently allowed a majority of others to make the decision for them. On the international level, if the leadership of the U.S. decides to occupy a country in the Middle East, it not only affects the leadership. It also affects U.S. service members, their families, and the communities they come from. If the U.S. is spending money on a political conflict, the value of the U.S. dollar
Dollar
The dollar is the name of the official currency of many countries, including Australia, Belize, Canada, Ecuador, El Salvador, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Singapore, Taiwan, and the United States.-Etymology:...
may be adversely affected. There are multiple cross-level and interactive effects of a decision. As the action of one jihad
Jihad
Jihad , an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād translates as a noun meaning "struggle". Jihad appears 41 times in the Quran and frequently in the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God ". A person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid; the plural is...
ist may potentially disrupt the lives of hundreds of service members, their respective families, the unit to which they belong, the community, and the nation.
Key contributors
- Urie BronfenbrennerUrie BronfenbrennerUrie Bronfenbrenner was a Russian American psychologist, known for developing his Ecological Systems Theory, and as a co-founder of the Head Start program in the United States for disadvantaged pre-school children....
- Ernest BurgessErnest BurgessErnest Watson Burgess was an urban sociologist born in Tilbury, Ontario. He was educated at Kingfisher College in Oklahoma and continued graduate studies in sociology at the University of Chicago. In 1916, he returned to the University of Chicago, as a faculty member. Burgess was hired as an...
- Charles DarwinCharles DarwinCharles Robert Darwin FRS was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection.He published his theory...
- Garrett HardinGarrett HardinGarrett James Hardin was an American ecologist who warned of the dangers of overpopulation and whose concept of the tragedy of the commons brought attention to "the damage that innocent actions by individuals can inflict on the environment"...
- Amos H. Hawley http://carolinafirst.unc.edu/distprofs/hawley.htm
- Alastair McIntoshAlastair McIntoshAlastair McIntosh is a Scottish writer, academic and activist.He was brought up in Leurbost on the Isle of Lewis and is married to Vérène Nicolas. He is involved with Scottish land reform especially on Eigg and campaigned successfully against the Harris superquarry in Lingerbay...
- John G. Oetzel http://www.unm.edu/~oetzel/pages/biography.html
- Robert E. ParkRobert E. ParkRobert Ezra Park was an American urban sociologist, one of the main founders of the original Chicago School of sociology.-Life:...
- Daniel StokolsDaniel StokolsDaniel Stokols is Chancellor's Professor of Social Ecology in the Departments of Psychology and Social Behavior and Planning, Policy, and Design, and Dean Emeritus of the School of Social Ecology at the University of California, Irvine. Dr. Stokols received his B.A. degree at the University of...
- Stella Ting-Toomey http://www.sandiego.edu/commstudies/faculty_members/tingtoomey.html
- Louis WirthLouis WirthLouis Wirth was an American sociologist and member of the Chicago school of sociology.-Life:Louis Wirth was born in the small village of Gemünden in the Hunsrück, Germany. He was one of seven children born to Rosalie Lorig and Joseph Wirth. Gemünden was a pastoral community, and Joseph Wirth...