Slayers
Encyclopedia
is a series of over 52 light novel
Light novel
A is a style of Japanese novel primarily targeting junior high and high school students . The term "light novel" is a wasei-eigo, or a Japanese term formed from words in the English language. Light novels are often called or for short...

s written by Hajime Kanzaka
Hajime Kanzaka
is a Japanese novelist and manga story writer.Kanzaka is best known for writing the Slayers novels that inspired the hit anime seasons, OAVs, and manga spinoffs. Kanzaka was born in Osaka, Japan. At present, his Slayers novels have reached 54+ novels...

 and illustrated by Rui Araizumi. It was later developed into several manga
Manga
Manga is the Japanese word for "comics" and consists of comics and print cartoons . In the West, the term "manga" has been appropriated to refer specifically to comics created in Japan, or by Japanese authors, in the Japanese language and conforming to the style developed in Japan in the late 19th...

 titles, five televised anime
Anime
is the Japanese abbreviated pronunciation of "animation". The definition sometimes changes depending on the context. In English-speaking countries, the term most commonly refers to Japanese animated cartoons....

 series, two three-episode original video animation
Original video animation
, abbreviated as media , are animated films and series made specially for release in home-video formats. The term originated in relation to Japanese animation...

s (OVAs), and five movies. It also spawned several console role-playing games for the Sega Saturn
Sega Saturn
The is a 32-bit fifth-generation video game console that was first released by Sega on November 22, 1994 in Japan, May 11, 1995 in North America, and July 8, 1995 in Europe...

 and PlayStation
PlayStation
The is a 32-bit fifth-generation video game console first released by Sony Computer Entertainment in Japan on December 3, .The PlayStation was the first of the PlayStation series of consoles and handheld game devices. The PlayStation 2 was the console's successor in 2000...

, as well as one for the Super Famicom
Super Nintendo Entertainment System
The Super Nintendo Entertainment System is a 16-bit video game console that was released by Nintendo in North America, Europe, Australasia , and South America between 1990 and 1993. In Japan and Southeast Asia, the system is called the , or SFC for short...

. Slayers is a narrative that follows the adventures of the young sorceress Lina Inverse and her companions as they journey through their world. Using powerful magic and swordsmanship they battle overreaching wizards, demon
Demon
call - 1347 531 7769 for more infoIn Ancient Near Eastern religions as well as in the Abrahamic traditions, including ancient and medieval Christian demonology, a demon is considered an "unclean spirit" which may cause demonic possession, to be addressed with an act of exorcism...

s seeking to destroy the world, dark lords, and the occasional hapless gang of bandits. The series is considered to be one of the most popular of the 1990s.

Setting and magic

In the Slayers universe the Lord of Nightmares is the ultimate being, the creator of at least four parallel worlds. The Claire Bible, an artifact containing the knowledge of a fallen shinzoku, Aqualord Ragradia, states that the Lord of Nightmares seeks to regain its "true form", which is only attainable by destroying these worlds and returning them to the chaos that it itself is. For unexplained reasons, though, the Lord of Nightmares has not acted upon this desire by itself so far.

On each of these worlds are gods (shinzoku, lit. "godly race") and demons (mazoku, lit. "monster race"), fighting without end. Should the gods win the war in a world, that world will be at peace. Should the demons win, the world will be destroyed and returned to the Sea of Chaos. In Lina's world, the supreme god is Flare Dragon Ceiphied, and the supreme demon is the Ruby-Eye Shabranigdo. Long ago, their war ended more or less in a stalemate, when Ceiphied was able to split Shabranigdo's existence into seven pieces in order to prevent him from coming back to life, then sealing them within human souls. As the souls are reincarnated, the individual fragments would therefore be worn down until Shabranigdo himself would be destroyed. However, Ceiphied was so exhausted by this that he himself sank into the Sea of Chaos, leaving four parts of himself in the world.

A millennium
Millennium
A millennium is a period of time equal to one thousand years —from the Latin phrase , thousand, and , year—often but not necessarily related numerically to a particular dating system....

 before the events in Slayers, one of Ruby-Eye's fragments (which was sealed in the body of Lei Magnus, a very powerful sorcerer
Magician (fantasy)
A magician, mage, sorcerer, sorceress, wizard, enchanter, enchantress, thaumaturge or a person known under one of many other possible terms is someone who uses or practices magic that derives from supernatural or occult sources...

) revived and began the against one of the parts of Ceiphied, the Water Dragon King, also known as Aqualord Ragradia. Ultimately, the piece of Shabranigdo won, but Aqualord, using the last remnants of her power, sealed him into a block of magical ice within the Kataart Mountains. Nevertheless, Shabranigdo's lieutenants remained at liberty, sealing a part of the world within a magical barrier, through which only mazoku could pass.

There are four types of magic within the Slayers universe. Black magic spells, such as the famous Dragon Slave, call directly on the powers of the mazoku and are capable of causing enormous damage. White magic spells are of an obscure origin and are used for healing or protection. Shamanistic magic is focused on manipulation and alteration of the basic elements of the natural world (earth, wind, fire, water and spirit) and contains spell for both offense and convenience, such as Raywing, Fireball, or Elmekia Lance. Holy magic uses the power of the shinzoku, but the aforementioned barrier made its usage impossible before the death of the mazoku Hellmaster Phibrizzo. As a rule, mazoku can only be harmed by spiritual (astral) shamanistic magic, holy magic, or black magic which draws power from another mazoku with greater might than the target.

Above all other magic, however, are the immensely destructive spells drawing power from the Lord of Nightmares. The two spells of this class are the Ragna Blade, capable of cutting through any obstacle or being, and the Giga Slave, which can kill any opponent, but which could also destroy the world itself if the spell is miscast.

Light novels

Slayers was originally serialized in Dragon Magazine in 1989 as a light novel series written by Hajime Kanzaka
Hajime Kanzaka
is a Japanese novelist and manga story writer.Kanzaka is best known for writing the Slayers novels that inspired the hit anime seasons, OAVs, and manga spinoffs. Kanzaka was born in Osaka, Japan. At present, his Slayers novels have reached 54+ novels...

, and with artwork by Rui Araizumi. The serialized chapters were then published as Slayers across 15 volumes from January 25, 1990 to May 15, 2000. On September 7, 2004, Tokyopop
Tokyopop
Tokyopop, styled TOKYOPOP, and formerly known as Mixx, is a distributor, licensor, and publisher of anime, manga, manhwa, and Western manga-style works. The existing German publishing division produces German translations of licensed Japanese properties and original English-language manga, as well...

 began releasing the light novels in English. On January 2, 2008, they released Volume 8.

Slayers Special is a spin-off prequel series of 30 novels published from 1991 to 2008. Each consisting of one-shot stories (sometimes, two-chapter stories) chronicling the exploits of Lina Inverse and Naga the Serpent before the events in Slayers. Three additional volumes were released under a new series title, Slayers Smash in July 2008, January 2009, and October 2010. The series is ongoing.

A four volume prequel featuring Lina and Naga, Slayers Delicious, was released between 1997 and 1999. These four stories were originally published separately by Fujimi Fantasia in mini-bunko format, and later they were included in different Special novels.

A one volume crossover between Slayers and the series Sorcerous Stabber Orphen was published in 2005 under the title Slayers VS Orphen.

Manga

  • Slayers (1 volume, illustrated by Rui Araizumi, original story, published in 1995, reedited in 2001, also known as Slayers Medieval Mayhem)
  • Chōbaku Mahōden Slayers (original name: 超爆魔道伝スレイヤーズ, 8 volumes, illustrated by Shoko Yoshinaka, adapted from Slayers main novels 1-8, 4th volume adapted from Slayers Return movie, 1995–2001, also known as Super Explosive Demon Story Slayers)
  • Slayers Special (4 volumes, illustrated by Tommy Ohtsuka, adapted from Slayers Special novels, 2000–2001)
  • Slayers Premium (1 volume, illustrated by Tommy Ohtsuka, adapted from the movie of the same name)
  • Slayers Knight of the Aqualord (6 volumes, illustrated by Tommy Ohtsuka, original story, 2003–2005)
  • Slayers Revolution (1 volume, illustrated by Issei Hyouji, original story)
  • Slayers Evolution-R (still being published in Monthly Dragon Age
    Monthly Dragon Age
    is a Japanese manga magazine published by Fujimi Shobo. The magazine began as a combination between Monthly Comic Dragon and Monthly Dragon Junior, two former magazines published by Fujimi Shobo. The first issue was published in April 2003, and the magazine is sold on the ninth of each month. The...

    , illustrated by Issei Hyouji, original story)
  • Slayers Legend (2 volume compilation from old Slayers manga, with chapters from Slayers and Choubaku Mahouden Slayers, and a new manga called Slayers: Falshes no Sunadokei, Slayers: the Hourglass of Falshes)


In July 1998, Central Park Media
Central Park Media
Central Park Media was an American multimedia entertainment company based in New York City, New York, that was active in the distribution of East Asian cinema, television series, anime, manga and manhwa titles in North America prior to its bankruptcy in 2009...

 announced they had licensed the manga for distribution in North America. On June 15, 1999, Slayers: Medieval Mayhem was released. The 4 volume series Slayers Special was published between October 12, 2002, and June 25, 2003 Super-Explosive Demon Story, a 7 volume series, followed Between July 9, 2002 and December 1, 2004. Finally, On July 5, 2005, Slayers Premium was released.

Between July 26, 2008 and March 2009, a new series entitled Slayers Light Magic began serialisation in Kadokawa Shoten
Kadokawa Shoten
is a well-known Japanese publishing company based in Tokyo, Japan. Kadokawa has published both manga novels and magazines, such as Newtype magazine...

's Kerokero Ace
Kerokero Ace
is a Japanese shōnen manga magazine published in Japan by Kadokawa Shoten. The magazine is aimed at boys between 9 to 13 years old. It is directly focused on the Sgt. Frog series and other works promoted by Bandai such as Gundam. The magazine contains manga comics, computer game reviews,...

. The series is written by Yoshijirō Muramatsu and Shin Sasaki, and set in a technological world instead of a fantasy world.

Anime

The first of the four seasons of the anime bore the franchise's title. The second season was titled Slayers NEXT, and the third season was titled Slayers TRY. A fourth season, Slayers AGAIN, was rumored following the success of TRY, but early scheduling conflicts caused interest in the project to dissipate.
The series was released in North America by Software Sculptors, who released the first series on VHS
VHS
The Video Home System is a consumer-level analog recording videocassette standard developed by Victor Company of Japan ....

 and Laserdisc
Laserdisc
LaserDisc was a home video format and the first commercial optical disc storage medium. Initially licensed, sold, and marketed as MCA DiscoVision in North America in 1978, the technology was previously referred to interally as Optical Videodisc System, Reflective Optical Videodisc, Laser Optical...

 in 1996, with a choice of dub or subtitles. Four volumes were made, covering the first thirteen episodes. Episodes 14–26 were not released until 1997–1998. Slayers NEXT was released on VHS from April 1999 in subtitled and English dubbed options. A box set of the first four volumes was released in July 1999, and a box set of the second four volumes was released in October of the same year. Slayers TRY was released later the next year. Central Park Media
Central Park Media
Central Park Media was an American multimedia entertainment company based in New York City, New York, that was active in the distribution of East Asian cinema, television series, anime, manga and manhwa titles in North America prior to its bankruptcy in 2009...

 also released the first three seasons on DVD (in season box sets) in early 2000. They were also re-released a few years later.

In May 2005, at Anime Central
Anime Central
Anime Central is an anime convention that is held yearly in Rosemont, Illinois, United States. It is one of the fastest growing anime conventions in the U.S. and has ranked as the 3rd largest North American anime convention since 2010. The convention is like many other anime conventions; it runs...

 in Rosemont, FUNimation Entertainment
FUNimation Entertainment
Funimation is an American entertainment company. Originally founded in 1994 by Gen Fukunaga, the company became a subsidiary of Navarre Corporation on May 11, 2005...

 announced they obtained the license for the TV series, since the previous owner's license expired in Fall 2005. It aired as part of the FUNimation programming block on CoLours TV
CoLours TV
Colours TV was a multicultural American TV network produced by the non-profit organization Black Star Communications. Programs focused on the cultural and educational issues of the Hispanic, Black, Asian, and Native American communities. Some examples of programming included video...

. and the first bilingual DVD box set was released on August 27, 2007 containing the Central Park Media
Central Park Media
Central Park Media was an American multimedia entertainment company based in New York City, New York, that was active in the distribution of East Asian cinema, television series, anime, manga and manhwa titles in North America prior to its bankruptcy in 2009...

 dub. A boxset of Slayers, Slayers NEXT and Slayers TRY was released by Funimation on August 4, 2009.

In 2009, MVM Films
MVM Films
MVM Films is a British distributor of Japanese animation. The company sublicenses anime titles from US Anime companies such as Media Blasters, Geneon, Nozomi Entertainment, Urban Vision, AnimEigo, and US Manga Corps, which do not have a UK presence, and releases them on Region 2 DVD...

 began releasing the series in the United Kingdom on a monthly basis. The first series was released on four DVDs between January 5, and April 6, 2009. The first volume of Slayers NEXT was released on May 11, 2009.

Episodes have also been made available on the streaming video site Hulu
Hulu
Hulu is a website and over-the-top subscription service offering ad-supported on-demand streaming video of TV shows, movies, webisodes and other new media, trailers, clips, and behind-the-scenes footage from NBC, Fox, ABC, and Obstacle on October 20th 2011 Nickelodeon and CBS and many other...

 and Funimation's website.

A fourth anime series, Slayers Revolution, premiered in Japan on July 2, 2008. Megumi Hayashibara
Megumi Hayashibara
is a Japanese voice actress, singer, radio personality, and lyricist from Tokyo. She is currently affiliated with Aksent. Her nicknames include: Megu-san, Megu-nee, Bara-san, Kakka, and Daijin...

 performed both the opening and ending theme songs. The new plot to be told across two 13-episode arcs and follows an original storyline that has subplots based on events in the novels, with series director Takashi Watanabe and production studio J.C. Staff reprising their duties from the three original TV series. A fifth Slayers series titled Slayers Evolution-R is the second 13-episode arc of Slayers Revolution and was aired on AT-X
AT-X (company)
is a Japanese anime television network owned by . AT-X, Inc. was founded on June 26, 2000 as a subsidiary of TV Tokyo Medianet, which, in turn, is a subsidiary of TV Tokyo. Its headquarters are in Minato, Tokyo. AT-X network broadcasts anime via satellite and cable since December 24, 1997.AT-X is...

 starting on January 12, 2009 in Japan. FUNimation licensed both Slayers Revolution and Slayers Evolution-R for American release; the episodes in Japanese with English subtitles were uploaded to YouTube, as well as Funimation's website in July 2009. Funimation tapped NYAV Post
NYAV Post
NYAV Post is an American recording studio founded by Michael Sinterniklaas in 2000. The studio is located in New York City, with a West Coast branch located in Los Angeles, California...

 to produce the English-language dub of the series, with dialogue being recorded in both New York City, and Los Angeles. NYAV Post was able to reunite most of the original Central Park Media main character cast for the dubbing of the new season. However, Michael Sinterniklaas
Michael Sinterniklaas
Michael Tremain Sinterniklaas is a Dutch American actor, voice actor, ADR Director and script writer who has worked for Viz Media, Bandai Entertainment, Funimation Entertainment, DuArt Film and Video, 4Kids Entertainment, and Tripwire Productions...

 replaced David Moo
David Moo
David Moo, is an American voice actor from Brookline, Massachusetts. He is best known for voicing Sanji in the 4Kids dub of One Piece, as well as Xellos in The Slayers, and Faraji Ngala in several episodes of the 2003-2009 Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles animated series. Moo also loaned his voice to...

 as Xellos
Xellos
is a fictional character and prevalent figure in the Slayers fantasy manga, light novels, and anime. He is a powerful Mazoku , who is both a help and a hindrance to protagonist Lina Inverse and her friends....

. Other notable characters, such as Sylphiel, Prince Phil, and Naga the Serpent
Naga the Serpent
is a fictional character in the novel, movie, OVA and manga versions of Slayers. Her Japanese voice actress is Maria Kawamura, and her English voice actress is Kelly Manison in the OVAs and movies, and Eva Kaminsky in Slayers Evolution-R....

 were also recast with new voice actors. In December 2009, Funimation announced that the first "Slayers Revolution" boxset will be released on March 16, 2010. Funimation released the first 4 English dubbed episodes of Slayers Revolution to YouTube on January 19, 2010. They have also uploaded the First 2 English dubbed episodes of Evolution-R to YouTube. They released Evolution-R to DVD in June 2010. Funimation released both Slayers Revolution and Evolution-R to Blu-ray on September 21, 2010

Both Revolution and Evolution-R made their North American television debut when they started airing on the FUNimation Channel
FUNimation Channel
The FUNimation Channel is a 24-hour cable network which broadcasts anime series in the United States. OlympuSAT was chosen as the exclusive distributor of the network....

 September 6, 2010.

OVAs

Two OVA
Original video animation
, abbreviated as media , are animated films and series made specially for release in home-video formats. The term originated in relation to Japanese animation...

 series followed the anime series. consisted of 3 individual episodes directed by Hiroshi Watanabe and released in Japan by Kadokawa Shoten
Kadokawa Shoten
is a well-known Japanese publishing company based in Tokyo, Japan. Kadokawa has published both manga novels and magazines, such as Newtype magazine...

 and J.C. Staff. The first episode was released in Japan on July 25, 1996 on Laserdisc and VHS. In North America, Slayers Special was initially released on as two separate titles, Slayers: Dragon Slave and Slayers: Explosion Array. On January 12, 1999, ADV Films released Slayers: Explosion Array! on VHS in a choice of subtitled and dubbed options. On November 21, 2000, ADV Films released Slayers: Book of Spells, containing all 3 Slayers Special episodes.

A second three series OVA, followed in 1998. It was also directed by Watanabe and produced by J.C. Staff. ADV Films released all the OVAs to VHS and DVD.

Films

  1. Slayers The Motion Picture
    Slayers The Motion Picture
    Slayers - The Motion Picture, originally released in Japan as Slayers, is a 1995 Japanese animated fantasy adventure film chief directed and written by Kazuo Yamazaki and directed by Hiroshi Watanabe...

    (Movie, 1995)
  2. Slayers Return
    Slayers Return
    is a 1996 anime film directed by Kunihiko Yuyama and Hiroshi Watanabe and written by Hajime Kanzaka. It is the second film released in the Slayers saga....

    (Movie, 1996)
  3. Slayers Great
    Slayers Great
    is a 1997 anime film directed by Kunihiko Yuyama and Hiroshi Watanabe and written by Hajime Kanzaka. It is the third film to be released in the Slayers saga...

    (Movie, 1997)
  4. Slayers Gorgeous
    Slayers Gorgeous
    is a 1998 anime film directed by Hiroshi Watanabe and written by Hajime Kanzaka. It is the fourth film in the Slayers series.-Synopsis:Wandering sorceresses Lina Inverse and Naga the Serpent get involved in a war between Lord Calvert and his daughter, Marlene. Lina sides with Calvert, while Naga...

    (Movie, 1998)
  5. Slayers Premium
    Slayers Premium
    is an anime short film written and directed by Junichi Satō. Premium, the fifth and latest Slayers film, was first released in Japan on December 22, 2001, along with Sakura Wars: The Movie, DiGi Charat and Azumanga Daioh: The Very Short Movie....

    (Short movie, 2001)


All films were produced by the J.C. Staff, and released to VHS and DVD in North America by ADV Films.

Anime Comics

  • SLAYERS Return (1 Volume, adapted from Slayers Return movie, 1996)
  • SLAYERS Great (1 Volume, adapted from Slayers Great movie, 1997)
  • SLAYERS Gorgeous (1 Volume, adapted from Slayers Gorgeous movie, 1998)

Radio drama

  • Slayers Extra (4 episodes, adapted from Slayers Special novels, 1995–1996)
  • Slayers N'extra (4 episodes, adapted from Slayers Special novels, 1997)
  • Slayers Premium (1 episode, prologue and epilogue to Slayers Premium movie, 2002)
  • Slayers VS Orphen (1 episode, adapted from Slayers VS Orphen novel, 2005) (new Radio-Drama, 3 episodes for the time being, 2006)

RPGs

The series was adapted into an add-on for the Magius RPG
Role-playing game
A role-playing game is a game in which players assume the roles of characters in a fictional setting. Players take responsibility for acting out these roles within a narrative, either through literal acting, or through a process of structured decision-making or character development...

.

In August 2003, Guardians of Order
Guardians of Order
Guardians of Order was a Canadian company founded in 1996 by Mark C. MacKinnon in Guelph, Ontario. The company's business output consisted of role-playing games . Their first game is the anime inspired Big Eyes, Small Mouth. In 2006 Guardians of Order ceased operations due to overwhelming...

 published a licensed Slayers RPG
The Slayers d20
The Slayers d20 is a roleplaying game published by Guardians of Order based on the anime series Slayers. The title refers to the title under which Central Park Media released the three seasons of the television series....

 that used the d20 System
D20 System
The d20 System is a role-playing game system published in 2000 by Wizards of the Coast originally developed for the third edition of Dungeons & Dragons...

, and three guidebooks that included pages of game stats in Guardians of Order's BESM
Big Eyes, Small Mouth
Big Eyes, Small Mouth is a roleplaying game that was designed to simulate the action of anime and manga. It is frequently referred to by the acronym BESM. The title alludes to the common anime drawing style of characters with huge, expressive eyes and comparatively small mouths.BESM uses a...

game system for major characters, spells and weapons.

Video games

Several Slayers role playing games have been released in Japan. Slayers was released by Banpresto
Banpresto
is a Japanese toy company, best known in America for game development, headquartered in the Shinagawa Seaside West Building in Shinagawa, Tokyo. It was founded April 1977 as Hoei Sangyo, Co. Ltd. The company was renamed Coreland in 1982, and during the 1980s it worked mainly as a subcontractor for...

 on Super Famicom
Super Nintendo Entertainment System
The Super Nintendo Entertainment System is a 16-bit video game console that was released by Nintendo in North America, Europe, Australasia , and South America between 1990 and 1993. In Japan and Southeast Asia, the system is called the , or SFC for short...

 on June 24, 1994. Another game entitled Slayers was released for NEC PC-9801. Slayers Royal was released by Kadokawa Shoten
Kadokawa Shoten
is a well-known Japanese publishing company based in Tokyo, Japan. Kadokawa has published both manga novels and magazines, such as Newtype magazine...

 for Sega Saturn
Sega Saturn
The is a 32-bit fifth-generation video game console that was first released by Sega on November 22, 1994 in Japan, May 11, 1995 in North America, and July 8, 1995 in Europe...

 on July 25, 1997. and by ESP Software for PlayStation
PlayStation
The is a 32-bit fifth-generation video game console first released by Sony Computer Entertainment in Japan on December 3, .The PlayStation was the first of the PlayStation series of consoles and handheld game devices. The PlayStation 2 was the console's successor in 2000...

 on June 25, 1998. A sequel, Slayers Royal 2 was released on Sega Saturn by ESP Software on September 3, 1998 and on PlayStation on July 11, 1999. Slayers Wonderful was published by Banpresto
Banpresto
is a Japanese toy company, best known in America for game development, headquartered in the Shinagawa Seaside West Building in Shinagawa, Tokyo. It was founded April 1977 as Hoei Sangyo, Co. Ltd. The company was renamed Coreland in 1982, and during the 1980s it worked mainly as a subcontractor for...

 for PlayStation on October 22, 1998.

Reception

Of the various media which make up the "Slayers" franchise, the anime has by far reached the largest audience and is considered to be one of the most popular series of the 1990s. A parody
Parody
A parody , in current usage, is an imitative work created to mock, comment on, or trivialise an original work, its subject, author, style, or some other target, by means of humorous, satiric or ironic imitation...

 of the high fantasy
High fantasy
High fantasy or epic fantasy is a subgenre of fantasy that is set in invented or parallel worlds. High fantasy was brought to fruition through the work of authors such as J. R. R. Tolkien and C. S. Lewis, whose major fantasy works were published in the 1950s...

 genre
Genre
Genre , Greek: genos, γένος) is the term for any category of literature or other forms of art or culture, e.g. music, and in general, any type of discourse, whether written or spoken, audial or visual, based on some set of stylistic criteria. Genres are formed by conventions that change over time...

, the series's driving force lies in comic scenarios alluding to other specific anime, or more general genre tropes and cliches. Due to the series' comedic nature, less development is given to plot and characters, which some consider predictable. Never the less, the series' focus on humor and entertainment and "old school" anime feel make it a nostalgic classic to many.
In Anime Essentials: Every Thing a Fan Needs to Know, Giles Poitras wrote "More humorous and less serious looking than the characters in the Lodoss War series, the stars of Slayers provide action and laughs".
The source of this article is wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.  The text of this article is licensed under the GFDL.
 
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