Shangdi
Encyclopedia
Shangdi also known as Di in Oracle Bone Inscription and Thirteen Classics
, refers to the supreme god or a divine power regarded as the spiritual ultimate by the Chinese people
from the Shang Dynasty
. He controlled victory in battle, harvest, the fate of the kingdom, and the weather. Shang Di ruled a hierarchy of other gods controlling nature, as well as the spirits of the deceased. Shangdi was probably more transcendental than immanent, only working through lesser gods. During the Zhou Dynasty
, Shangdi was associated with Heaven (天 Tiān
). By the time of the Han dynasty
, the influential Confucian scholar Zheng Xuan
explained that "Shangdi is another name for Tian." Dong Zhongshu
said that "Tian is the ultimate authority, the king of gods who should be admired by the king." Shangdi remains chiefly synonymous with Heaven since Zhou Dynasty. Emperors of China are sons of Shangdi, Son of Heaven
. Shangdi was considered too distant to be worshiped directly by mortals. Shang kings claimed that Shang-di made himself accessible only through the souls of their royal ancestors. Thus, Chinese People worship Shangdi through their ancestors because ancestors are accompanying Shangdi in the divine realm. Temple of Heaven
is the Sacred altar for emperors worshiping Shangdi since Ming Dynasty.
The earliest references to Shangdi are found in Oracle Bone inscriptions of the Shang Dynasty
(ca. 1600 – ca. 1046 BC).The Shang Kings searched for approval or validation from Shangdi for state action. They used the shoulder blades of oxen killed as sacrificial offerings or oracle bones to send questions or communications by fire to the divine realm. The application of heat caused the bones or shells to crack, and then royal diviners interpreted the cracks as Shangdi's responses to the King. Oracle Bone Inscriptions were archived as official records.
There were usually no routine sacrificial offerings made directly to Shangdi. Shang kings offered sacrifices to the other spirits or deities presided by Shangdi. Ordinary people approached Shangdi by worshiping their ancestors.
Shangdi was gradually replaced by Heaven (Tian). In Zhou texts, Shangdi is a moral force that is unambiguously good. He exercised its power according to exacting moral standards. Shangdi also is concerned about Chinese people's wellbeing and moral character, which led to the setting up of ethical standards that foster virtuous behavior and social harmony. When Heaven sends down calamities, a man who calamities himself will no longer be able to live. The descendants of Shang were submissive to Zhou because Heaven passes His mandate to virtuous kings of Zhou.
Confucian scholars originally were ritual specialists that served as officers of the Shang and Zhou royal courts. They inherited scholarship and the sacred books from Shang and Zhou Dynasty. In the theology of Confucianism, Shangdi is the Logos
(principle) which is the divine path of god. Rites are the Logos of Shangdi. Shang di is virtuous. Shangdi sent kings and sages to govern China. Only those who assist Shangdi's Being receive His blessings. In tradition of New-Text School, Confucius
is a "throneless king" of Shangdi and a savior of the world. But Old-text school persisted that Confucius is a sage of Shangdi who had given new interpretation to the heritage from previous three great dynasties. Confucinaism is parallel to the path of god. Shangdi is mentioned in Chinese Literature in the Five Classics, allegedly compiled by Confucius
in the 6th century BC. The Wujing
was a collection of five books that represented the pinnacle of Chinese culture at that time. The oldest parts of the Wujing were first written around 1000 BC, apparently relying on the Sacred Books of Confucius. All of the five classics include references to Shangdi:
Other classics mention Shangdi as well. Another "Classic" collection, the Four Books (四書, pinyin: Sì Shū), mentions Shangdi also, but it is a later compilation and the references are much more sparse and abstract. The highest number of occurrences appear in the earliest references; this pattern may reflect increasing rationalization of Shangdi over time. The Book of Documents says, "August Heaven has no partial affections; it supports only the virtuous." In Zuo Zhuan's explaination, "unless one is virtuous, the people will not be in harmony and the spirits will not partake of one's offerings. What the spirits are attracted to his one's virtue." The Odes say:"Heaven creates the teeming multitudes; All things are governed by their proper principles. Abide by the normal nature of man, and all will love these beautiful virtues."
One of the five books in the Wujing is the Classic of History
, (書經, pinyin: Shujing), aka Book of History, aka Esteemed Book (尚書, pinyin: Shangshu). The Shujing is possibly the earliest narrative of China, and may predate the European historian Herodotus (about 440 BC) as a history by many centuries. This implies that Shangdi is the oldest deity directly referenced by any Chinese narrative literature. The Shujing itself is also divided into 5 parts, and those parts were actually considered books as well. However, the number of books or "documents" is a division that varies depending on the version or compilation. Therefore, quoted references may not match in different compilations.
The 2nd of the 5 "books" inside the Shujing is called the "Book of Yu" (虞書, pinyin: Yushu). Yu, in this title, is a location, not the popular hero Yu (禹). This "book" has 4 "chapters"; and the 1st "chapter" is called the "Canon of Shun" (舜典, pinyin: Shun Dian). Emperor Shun was the predecessor to the heroic Da Yu (大禹), or Great Yu, the first emperor of the Xia Dynasty
. About the third sentence is the first mention of Shangdi. And, as it was mentioned in the previous section how yearly sacrifices to Shangdi were made by Emperor Shun, the Chinese belief in Shangdi may have been regarded as predating the Xia Dynasty
.
From the earliest eras of Chinese history, Shangdi was officially worshipped through sacrificial rituals. It is the first and foremost important ritual of the state. Shangdi is believed to rule over natural and ancestral spirits, who act as His ministers. Shangdi is thought to be the Supreme Guide of both the natural order and the human order. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to Shangdi at the great Temple of Heaven
in the imperial capital. During the ritual a completely healthy bull would be slaughtered and presented as an animal sacrifice to Shangdi. It is important to note that Shangdi is never represented with either images or idols. Instead, in the center building of the Temple of Heaven, in a structure called the "Imperial Vault of Heaven", a "spirit tablet" (神位, or shénwèi) inscribed with the name of Shangdi is stored on the throne, Huangtian Shangdi (皇天上帝). During an annual sacrifice, the emperor would carry these tablets to the north part of the Temple of Heaven, a place called the "Prayer Hall For Good Harvests", and place them on that throne.
There are around ten stages in worship Shangdi or Heaven:
and xenophobia
could have influenced the gradual decline in the equivalence of God in the Western world with Shangdi and other ancient monotheisms amongst Bible translators:
Dr. G. Wright Doyle objects to using Shangdi because of the singularity of the term, which he finds incompatible with Trinity Doctrine, because he posits that plurality is necessary to any idea of God.
Thirteen Classics
The Thirteen Classics is a term for the group of thirteen classics of Confucian tradition that became the basis for the Imperial Examinations during the Song Dynasty and have shaped much of East Asian culture and thought....
, refers to the supreme god or a divine power regarded as the spiritual ultimate by the Chinese people
Chinese people
The term Chinese people may refer to any of the following:*People with Han Chinese ethnicity ....
from the Shang Dynasty
Shang Dynasty
The Shang Dynasty or Yin Dynasty was, according to traditional sources, the second Chinese dynasty, after the Xia. They ruled in the northeastern regions of the area known as "China proper" in the Yellow River valley...
. He controlled victory in battle, harvest, the fate of the kingdom, and the weather. Shang Di ruled a hierarchy of other gods controlling nature, as well as the spirits of the deceased. Shangdi was probably more transcendental than immanent, only working through lesser gods. During the Zhou Dynasty
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou Dynasty was a Chinese dynasty that followed the Shang Dynasty and preceded the Qin Dynasty. Although the Zhou Dynasty lasted longer than any other dynasty in Chinese history, the actual political and military control of China by the Ji family lasted only until 771 BC, a period known as...
, Shangdi was associated with Heaven (天 Tiān
Tian
Tian is one of the oldest Chinese terms for the cosmos and a key concept in Chinese mythology, philosophy, and religion. During the Shang Dynasty the Chinese called god Shangdi or Di , and during the Zhou Dynasty Tian "heaven; god" became synonymous with Shangdi...
). By the time of the Han dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
, the influential Confucian scholar Zheng Xuan
Zheng Xuan
Zheng Xuan , courtesy name Kangcheng , was an influential Chinese commentator and Confucian scholar of the Han Dynasty. He was born in modern Weifang, Shandong, and was a student of Ma Rong.-See also:*Three Kingdoms...
explained that "Shangdi is another name for Tian." Dong Zhongshu
Dong Zhongshu
Dong Zhongshu was a Han Dynasty Chinese scholar. He is traditionally associated with the promotion of Confucianism as the official ideology of the Chinese imperial state.-History:...
said that "Tian is the ultimate authority, the king of gods who should be admired by the king." Shangdi remains chiefly synonymous with Heaven since Zhou Dynasty. Emperors of China are sons of Shangdi, Son of Heaven
Son of Heaven
Son of Heaven may refer to:* Emperor of China* Emperor of Japan* Emperors of Vietnam* Son of God* Son of Heaven , book on Guangxu Emperor by Princess Der Ling...
. Shangdi was considered too distant to be worshiped directly by mortals. Shang kings claimed that Shang-di made himself accessible only through the souls of their royal ancestors. Thus, Chinese People worship Shangdi through their ancestors because ancestors are accompanying Shangdi in the divine realm. Temple of Heaven
Temple of Heaven
The Temple of Heaven, literally the Altar of Heaven is a complex of Taoist buildings situated in the southeastern part of central Beijing. The complex was visited by the Emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties for annual ceremonies of prayer to Heaven for good harvest...
is the Sacred altar for emperors worshiping Shangdi since Ming Dynasty.
Origin in Shang Dynasty
Shang Dynasty
The Shang Dynasty or Yin Dynasty was, according to traditional sources, the second Chinese dynasty, after the Xia. They ruled in the northeastern regions of the area known as "China proper" in the Yellow River valley...
(ca. 1600 – ca. 1046 BC).The Shang Kings searched for approval or validation from Shangdi for state action. They used the shoulder blades of oxen killed as sacrificial offerings or oracle bones to send questions or communications by fire to the divine realm. The application of heat caused the bones or shells to crack, and then royal diviners interpreted the cracks as Shangdi's responses to the King. Oracle Bone Inscriptions were archived as official records.
There were usually no routine sacrificial offerings made directly to Shangdi. Shang kings offered sacrifices to the other spirits or deities presided by Shangdi. Ordinary people approached Shangdi by worshiping their ancestors.
Shangdi was gradually replaced by Heaven (Tian). In Zhou texts, Shangdi is a moral force that is unambiguously good. He exercised its power according to exacting moral standards. Shangdi also is concerned about Chinese people's wellbeing and moral character, which led to the setting up of ethical standards that foster virtuous behavior and social harmony. When Heaven sends down calamities, a man who calamities himself will no longer be able to live. The descendants of Shang were submissive to Zhou because Heaven passes His mandate to virtuous kings of Zhou.
Theology in Confucianism
Logos
' is an important term in philosophy, psychology, rhetoric and religion. Originally a word meaning "a ground", "a plea", "an opinion", "an expectation", "word," "speech," "account," "reason," it became a technical term in philosophy, beginning with Heraclitus ' is an important term in...
(principle) which is the divine path of god. Rites are the Logos of Shangdi. Shang di is virtuous. Shangdi sent kings and sages to govern China. Only those who assist Shangdi's Being receive His blessings. In tradition of New-Text School, Confucius
Confucius
Confucius , literally "Master Kong", was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period....
is a "throneless king" of Shangdi and a savior of the world. But Old-text school persisted that Confucius is a sage of Shangdi who had given new interpretation to the heritage from previous three great dynasties. Confucinaism is parallel to the path of god. Shangdi is mentioned in Chinese Literature in the Five Classics, allegedly compiled by Confucius
Confucius
Confucius , literally "Master Kong", was a Chinese thinker and social philosopher of the Spring and Autumn Period....
in the 6th century BC. The Wujing
Wujing
Wujing may refer to:* Five Classics, five classic Chinese books* Sha Wujing, one of the three helpers of Xuánzàng in the classic Chinese novel Journey to the West...
was a collection of five books that represented the pinnacle of Chinese culture at that time. The oldest parts of the Wujing were first written around 1000 BC, apparently relying on the Sacred Books of Confucius. All of the five classics include references to Shangdi:
| char | pinyin | English | occurrence |
|---|---|---|---|
| 書經 | Shujing | Classic of History Classic of History The Classic of History is a compilation of documentary records related to events in ancient history of China. It is also commonly known as the Shàngshū , or simply Shū... | 32 times |
| 詩經 | Shijing | Classic of Poetry | 24 times |
| 禮記 | Liji | Classic of Rites Classic of Rites The Classic of Rites , also known as the Book of Rites, Book of Customs, the Record of Rites, was one of the Chinese Five Classics of the Confucian canon. It described the social forms, governmental system, and ancient/ceremonial rites of the Zhou Dynasty... | 20 times |
| 春秋 | Chunqiu | Spring and Autumn Annals Spring and Autumn Annals The Spring and Autumn Annals is the official chronicle of the State of Lu covering the period from 722 BCE to 481 BCE. It is the earliest surviving Chinese historical text to be arranged on annalistic principles. The text is extremely concise and, if all the commentaries are excluded, about 16,000... | 8 times |
| 易經 | Yijing | Classic of Changes | 2 times |
Other classics mention Shangdi as well. Another "Classic" collection, the Four Books (四書, pinyin: Sì Shū), mentions Shangdi also, but it is a later compilation and the references are much more sparse and abstract. The highest number of occurrences appear in the earliest references; this pattern may reflect increasing rationalization of Shangdi over time. The Book of Documents says, "August Heaven has no partial affections; it supports only the virtuous." In Zuo Zhuan's explaination, "unless one is virtuous, the people will not be in harmony and the spirits will not partake of one's offerings. What the spirits are attracted to his one's virtue." The Odes say:"Heaven creates the teeming multitudes; All things are governed by their proper principles. Abide by the normal nature of man, and all will love these beautiful virtues."
One of the five books in the Wujing is the Classic of History
Classic of History
The Classic of History is a compilation of documentary records related to events in ancient history of China. It is also commonly known as the Shàngshū , or simply Shū...
, (書經, pinyin: Shujing), aka Book of History, aka Esteemed Book (尚書, pinyin: Shangshu). The Shujing is possibly the earliest narrative of China, and may predate the European historian Herodotus (about 440 BC) as a history by many centuries. This implies that Shangdi is the oldest deity directly referenced by any Chinese narrative literature. The Shujing itself is also divided into 5 parts, and those parts were actually considered books as well. However, the number of books or "documents" is a division that varies depending on the version or compilation. Therefore, quoted references may not match in different compilations.
The 2nd of the 5 "books" inside the Shujing is called the "Book of Yu" (虞書, pinyin: Yushu). Yu, in this title, is a location, not the popular hero Yu (禹). This "book" has 4 "chapters"; and the 1st "chapter" is called the "Canon of Shun" (舜典, pinyin: Shun Dian). Emperor Shun was the predecessor to the heroic Da Yu (大禹), or Great Yu, the first emperor of the Xia Dynasty
Xia Dynasty
The Xia Dynasty is the first dynasty in China to be described in ancient historical chronicles such as Bamboo Annals, Classic of History and Records of the Grand Historian. The Xia Dynasty was established by the legendary Yu the Great after Shun, the last of the Five Emperors gave his throne to him...
. About the third sentence is the first mention of Shangdi. And, as it was mentioned in the previous section how yearly sacrifices to Shangdi were made by Emperor Shun, the Chinese belief in Shangdi may have been regarded as predating the Xia Dynasty
Xia Dynasty
The Xia Dynasty is the first dynasty in China to be described in ancient historical chronicles such as Bamboo Annals, Classic of History and Records of the Grand Historian. The Xia Dynasty was established by the legendary Yu the Great after Shun, the last of the Five Emperors gave his throne to him...
.
Worship
Temple of Heaven
The Temple of Heaven, literally the Altar of Heaven is a complex of Taoist buildings situated in the southeastern part of central Beijing. The complex was visited by the Emperors of the Ming and Qing dynasties for annual ceremonies of prayer to Heaven for good harvest...
in the imperial capital. During the ritual a completely healthy bull would be slaughtered and presented as an animal sacrifice to Shangdi. It is important to note that Shangdi is never represented with either images or idols. Instead, in the center building of the Temple of Heaven, in a structure called the "Imperial Vault of Heaven", a "spirit tablet" (神位, or shénwèi) inscribed with the name of Shangdi is stored on the throne, Huangtian Shangdi (皇天上帝). During an annual sacrifice, the emperor would carry these tablets to the north part of the Temple of Heaven, a place called the "Prayer Hall For Good Harvests", and place them on that throne.
Worship rituals
In the Book of History, the Duke of Zhou had an altar built in the southern suburb of Luo, the eastern capital of Zhou Dynasty. He offered two bulls as victims to Shangdi. The Book of Rites states that the Son of Heaven welcomed the arrival of the longest day. It was a great act of thanksgiving to Heaven. State sacrifice to Shangdi should be on a round-mound-altar compound according to the Sacred Books of Confucianism. Since Han Dynasty, the altar will be built in the south suburb of the capital for the worship. There are three tiers of the altar. On the top tier of the altar were the throne of Shangdi and the son of Shangdi,namely, the founder of the dynasty. On the second tier were the spirit-thrones for the sun and the moon. On the third tier, there are natural gods, including stars, cloud, rain, wind and thunder.There are around ten stages in worship Shangdi or Heaven:
- Welcoming deities
- Offering of jade and silk
- Offering of sacrificial food
- First offering of wine
- Second offering of wine
- Last offering of wine
- Retreat of civil dancers and entry of military dancers
- Performance of the military dance
- Farewell to deities
- Burning of sacrificial articles
Christian interpretations
An ongoing debate amongst scholars is how to render the Biblical idea of God into the Chinese language. Most of the controversy is over whether God should be translated as Shen (spirits or gods) or Shangdi (Most High God). British missionaries of the 19th Century preferred Shangdi, as connecting more with the ancient Chinese monotheism; while Americans usually used Shen, because they saw the concurrent Chinese polytheism as precluding any knowledge of the "true" God in ancient history. Some scholars say that imperialismImperialism
Imperialism, as defined by Dictionary of Human Geography, is "the creation and/or maintenance of an unequal economic, cultural, and territorial relationships, usually between states and often in the form of an empire, based on domination and subordination." The imperialism of the last 500 years,...
and xenophobia
Xenophobia
Xenophobia is defined as "an unreasonable fear of foreigners or strangers or of that which is foreign or strange". It comes from the Greek words ξένος , meaning "stranger," "foreigner" and φόβος , meaning "fear."...
could have influenced the gradual decline in the equivalence of God in the Western world with Shangdi and other ancient monotheisms amongst Bible translators:
Dr. G. Wright Doyle objects to using Shangdi because of the singularity of the term, which he finds incompatible with Trinity Doctrine, because he posits that plurality is necessary to any idea of God.
See also
- Chinese terms for GodChinese terms for GodChinese terms for God, especially a "Supreme God", have produced many variations for the title. The oldest records of the term Westerners translate as "God", "Most High God", "Greatest Lord" appear to exist in the earliest documents of Chinese literature as Shangdi...
- Chinese MythologyChinese mythologyChinese mythology is a collection of cultural history, folktales, and religions that have been passed down in oral or written tradition. These include creation myths and legends and myths concerning the founding of Chinese culture and the Chinese state...
- Chinese folk religionChinese folk religionChinese folk religion or Shenism , which is a term of considerable debate, are labels used to describe the collection of ethnic religious traditions which have been a main belief system in China and among Han Chinese ethnic groups for most of the civilization's history until today...
- traditional Chinese religion
- Religion in ChinaReligion in ChinaReligion in China has been characterized by pluralism since the beginning of Chinese history. The Chinese religions are family-oriented and do not demand the exclusive adherence of members. Some scholars doubt the use of the term "religion" in reference to Buddhism and Taoism, and suggest "cultural...