Publius Ostorius Scapula
Encyclopedia
Publius Ostorius Scapula (died 52) was a Roman
statesman and general who governed Britain
from 47 until his death, and was responsible for the defeat and capture of Caratacus
.
appointed by Augustus
and later prefect
of Egypt
.
Nothing is known of his early career. He was suffect consul
, probably in 46. In the winter of 47 he was appointed the second governor of Roman Britain
by the emperor
Claudius
, succeeding Aulus Plautius
. The south and east of the island was securely occupied and alliances had been made with tribes outside the Roman-controlled area, but other tribes continued to resist. Believing a new governor would be reluctant to campaign so late in the year, they staged attacks and uprisings.
Ostorius disabused them of this notion and responded vigorously, attacking relentlessly and allowing the native resistance no time to regroup. He apparently (based on an emendation of a corrupt passage in Tacitus
's Annals
) declared his intention to disarm all the Britons south and east of the rivers Trent
and Severn
. The geographical area described has led to discussion about the role of the Fosse Way
as a desired frontier line during the period as it links the Trent and the Severn.
The Iceni
, a tribe based in Norfolk
who had not been conquered but allied themselves with the Romans voluntarily, objected to this plan and led neighbouring tribes in an uprising. Ostorius defeated them by storming a hill fort
, possibly Stonea Camp
in the Fens
near March
in Cambridgeshire
, in a hard-fought battle. His son, Marcus Ostorius Scapula, won the corona civica for saving a Roman citizen's life during the fighting. The Iceni remained independent, and it is likely that Prasutagus
was installed as a pro-Roman ruler at this time.
After putting down the rebellion he began expeditions beyond the frontier, beginning with a productive campaign against the Deceangli
tribe in north Wales
and the Cheshire Gap
in 48. This was an astute move as it divided the tribes of North Britain from those in Wales. He was recalled east however after a new rebellion by a faction of the Brigantes
. This was quickly suppressed but revealed the dangers in the Romans' client kingdom system of which the Brigantes were a part; troops from the Legio XIV Gemina
were stationed in the area to keep the Brigantian peace. At this time the Legio II Augusta
held the command in the south east, the Legio IX Hispana
was campaigning the north east beyond the Trent, the Legio XX Valeria Victrix
held Colchester
and the Legio XIV was based at Wroxeter
.
Ostorius initiated further Romanisation during his command in the safer southern lands, founding Britain's first colony of military veterans at Camulodunum
(modern Colchester
) in 49 and probably establishing a municipium
at Verulamium
(St Albans
). His tactical skill rather than his political acumen was his strength however. He had received a difficult brief as the Claudian lowlands were economically unspectacular and Britain's mineral wealth lay in the barbarian lands instead. Capture of these would have to wait until later years.
In the meantime, Caratacus
, whose tribe, the Catuvellauni
, had been defeated in the first phase of the conquest, had re-emerged as a leader of the Silures
of south east Wales
and Gloucestershire
. Their rising was controlled by a programme of legionary fortress construction, driving Caratacus north into the lands of the Ordovices
. Ostorius managed to force him into an open conflict, after several years of guerrilla war
. They fought a battle, probably near the River Severn
and possibly near Caersws
, where the Romans defeated the British leader in 51.
The Ordovices had fortified a ridge of steep hills above the river and the difficulty of the terrain behind them made an encircling manoeuvre by the Romans impossible. Although Ostorius was concerned at the seemingly impregnable defences, Tacitus records that the eagerness and loyalty of his troops persuaded him to attack and in the end the Britons were easily defeated. Caratacus' wife and daughter were captured and his brother surrendered while Caratacus himself fled to the territory of the Brigantes
. However their queen, Cartimandua
, was loyal to Rome and handed him over in chains.
After the battle, Ostorius was honoured with triumphal
insignia but the victory did not entirely quell resistance in the Welsh borders. The Silures
especially continued to harass Roman troops, supposedly after Ostorius had publicly said that they posed such a danger that they should be either exterminated or transplanted. A large legionary force occupied in building forts in Siluran territory was surrounded and attacked and only rescued with difficulty and considerable loss. This violent desperation on the part of the Silures can be attributed to their reaction to what Peter Salway
calls Ostorius' lack of political judgement. The Silures had been galvanised by Ostorius' ill-thought out threats to destroy them and began taking Roman prisoners as hostages and distributing them amongst their neighbouring tribes. This had the effect of binding them all together and creating a new resistance movement.
Ostorius died unexpectedly in 52, supposedly "worn out with care" as Tacitus puts it, leaving Rome with a growing problem on its British frontiers. It has been claimed that his final resting place is in Clawdd Coch
in the Vale of Glamorgan
, southeast Wales. Silurian raids continued, defeating a legion led by Gaius Manlius Valens, before Aulus Didius Gallus
arrived as replacement governor. The complete pacification of the area was achieved only 25 years later by Sextus Julius Frontinus
.
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the post-Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean....
statesman and general who governed Britain
Roman Britain
Roman Britain was the part of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire from AD 43 until ca. AD 410.The Romans referred to the imperial province as Britannia, which eventually comprised all of the island of Great Britain south of the fluid frontier with Caledonia...
from 47 until his death, and was responsible for the defeat and capture of Caratacus
Caratacus
Caratacus was a first century British chieftain of the Catuvellauni tribe, who led the British resistance to the Roman conquest....
.
Career
Publius Ostorius Scapula was probably the son of Quintus Ostorius Scapula, the first joint commander of the Praetorian guardPraetorian Guard
The Praetorian Guard was a force of bodyguards used by Roman Emperors. The title was already used during the Roman Republic for the guards of Roman generals, at least since the rise to prominence of the Scipio family around 275 BC...
appointed by Augustus
Augustus
Augustus ;23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD.The dates of his rule are contemporary dates; Augustus lived under two calendars, the Roman Republican until 45 BC, and the Julian...
and later prefect
Prefect
Prefect is a magisterial title of varying definition....
of Egypt
Aegyptus (Roman province)
The Roman province of Egypt was established in 30 BC after Octavian defeated his rival Mark Antony, deposed his lover Queen Cleopatra VII and annexed the Ptolemaic kingdom of Egypt to the Roman Empire. The province encompassed most of modern-day Egypt except for the Sinai Peninsula...
.
Nothing is known of his early career. He was suffect consul
Consul
Consul was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire. The title was also used in other city states and also revived in modern states, notably in the First French Republic...
, probably in 46. In the winter of 47 he was appointed the second governor of Roman Britain
Roman Britain
Roman Britain was the part of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire from AD 43 until ca. AD 410.The Romans referred to the imperial province as Britannia, which eventually comprised all of the island of Great Britain south of the fluid frontier with Caledonia...
by the emperor
Roman Emperor
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period . The Romans had no single term for the office although at any given time, a given title was associated with the emperor...
Claudius
Claudius
Claudius , was Roman Emperor from 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, he was the son of Drusus and Antonia Minor. He was born at Lugdunum in Gaul and was the first Roman Emperor to be born outside Italy...
, succeeding Aulus Plautius
Aulus Plautius
Aulus Plautius was a Roman politician and general of the mid-1st century. He began the Roman conquest of Britain in 43, and became the first governor of the new province, serving from 43 to 47.-Career:...
. The south and east of the island was securely occupied and alliances had been made with tribes outside the Roman-controlled area, but other tribes continued to resist. Believing a new governor would be reluctant to campaign so late in the year, they staged attacks and uprisings.
Ostorius disabused them of this notion and responded vigorously, attacking relentlessly and allowing the native resistance no time to regroup. He apparently (based on an emendation of a corrupt passage in Tacitus
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
's Annals
Annals (Tacitus)
The Annals by Tacitus is a history of the reigns of the four Roman Emperors succeeding Caesar Augustus. The surviving parts of the Annals extensively cover most of the reigns of Tiberius and Nero. The title Annals was probably not given by Tacitus, but derives from the fact that he treated this...
) declared his intention to disarm all the Britons south and east of the rivers Trent
River Trent
The River Trent is one of the major rivers of England. Its source is in Staffordshire on the southern edge of Biddulph Moor. It flows through the Midlands until it joins the River Ouse at Trent Falls to form the Humber Estuary, which empties into the North Sea below Hull and Immingham.The Trent...
and Severn
River Severn
The River Severn is the longest river in Great Britain, at about , but the second longest on the British Isles, behind the River Shannon. It rises at an altitude of on Plynlimon, Ceredigion near Llanidloes, Powys, in the Cambrian Mountains of mid Wales...
. The geographical area described has led to discussion about the role of the Fosse Way
Fosse Way
The Fosse Way was a Roman road in England that linked Exeter in South West England to Lincoln in Lincolnshire, via Ilchester , Bath , Cirencester and Leicester .It joined Akeman Street and Ermin Way at Cirencester, crossed Watling Street at Venonis south...
as a desired frontier line during the period as it links the Trent and the Severn.
The Iceni
Iceni
The Iceni or Eceni were a British tribe who inhabited an area of East Anglia corresponding roughly to the modern-day county of Norfolk between the 1st century BC and the 1st century AD...
, a tribe based in Norfolk
Norfolk
Norfolk is a low-lying county in the East of England. It has borders with Lincolnshire to the west, Cambridgeshire to the west and southwest and Suffolk to the south. Its northern and eastern boundaries are the North Sea coast and to the north-west the county is bordered by The Wash. The county...
who had not been conquered but allied themselves with the Romans voluntarily, objected to this plan and led neighbouring tribes in an uprising. Ostorius defeated them by storming a hill fort
Hill fort
A hill fort is a type of earthworks used as a fortified refuge or defended settlement, located to exploit a rise in elevation for defensive advantage. They are typically European and of the Bronze and Iron Ages. Some were used in the post-Roman period...
, possibly Stonea Camp
Stonea Camp
Stonea Camp is an Iron Age hill fort located near March in the Cambridgeshire Fens. Situated on a gravel bank just above sea-level, it is the lowest hill fort in Britain. Around 500 BC, when fortification is thought to have begun at this site, this "hill" would have provided a significant area of...
in the Fens
The Fens
The Fens, also known as the , are a naturally marshy region in eastern England. Most of the fens were drained several centuries ago, resulting in a flat, damp, low-lying agricultural region....
near March
March, Cambridgeshire
March is a Fenland market town and civil parish in the Isle of Ely area of Cambridgeshire, England. March was the county town of the Isle of Ely, a separate administrative county between 1889 and 1965, and is now the administrative centre of Fenland District Council.The town was an important...
in Cambridgeshire
Cambridgeshire
Cambridgeshire is a county in England, bordering Lincolnshire to the north, Norfolk to the northeast, Suffolk to the east, Essex and Hertfordshire to the south, and Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire to the west...
, in a hard-fought battle. His son, Marcus Ostorius Scapula, won the corona civica for saving a Roman citizen's life during the fighting. The Iceni remained independent, and it is likely that Prasutagus
Prasutagus
Prasutagus was king of a British Celtic tribe called the Iceni, who inhabited roughly what is now Norfolk, in the 1st century AD. He is best known as the husband of Boudica....
was installed as a pro-Roman ruler at this time.
After putting down the rebellion he began expeditions beyond the frontier, beginning with a productive campaign against the Deceangli
Deceangli
The Deceangli or Deceangi were one of the Celtic tribes living in Britain, prior to the Roman invasion of the island. The tribe lived mainly in what is now north-east Wales, though it is uncertain whether their territory covered only the modern counties of Flintshire, Denbighshire and part of...
tribe in north Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
and the Cheshire Gap
Cheshire Plain
The Cheshire Plain is a relatively flat expanse of lowland situated almost entirely within the county of Cheshire in northwest England. It is bounded by the hills of North Wales to the west, and the Peak District of Derbyshire and North Staffordshire to the east and southeast...
in 48. This was an astute move as it divided the tribes of North Britain from those in Wales. He was recalled east however after a new rebellion by a faction of the Brigantes
Brigantes
The Brigantes were a Celtic tribe who in pre-Roman times controlled the largest section of what would become Northern England, and a significant part of the Midlands. Their kingdom is sometimes called Brigantia, and it was centred in what was later known as Yorkshire...
. This was quickly suppressed but revealed the dangers in the Romans' client kingdom system of which the Brigantes were a part; troops from the Legio XIV Gemina
Legio XIV Gemina
Legio quarta decima Gemina was a legion of the Roman Empire, levied by Julius Caesar in late 58 B.C. The cognomen Gemina suggests that the legion resulted from fusion of two previous ones, one of them being the Fourteenth legion that fought in the Battle of Alesia, the other being the Martia ...
were stationed in the area to keep the Brigantian peace. At this time the Legio II Augusta
Legio II Augusta
Legio secunda Augusta , was a Roman legion, levied by Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus in 43 BC, and still operative in Britannia in the 4th century...
held the command in the south east, the Legio IX Hispana
Legio IX Hispana
Legio Nona Hispana was a Roman legion, which operated from the first century BCE until mid 2nd century CE. The Spanish Legion's disappearance has raised speculations over its fate, largely of its alleged destruction in Scotland in about 117 CE, though some scholars believe it was destroyed in the...
was campaigning the north east beyond the Trent, the Legio XX Valeria Victrix
Legio XX Valeria Victrix
Legio vigesima Valeria Victrix was a Roman legion, probably raised by Augustus some time after 31 BC. It served in Hispania, Illyricum, and Germania before participating in the invasion of Britannia in 43 AD, where it remained and was active until at least the beginning of the 4th century...
held Colchester
Colchester
Colchester is an historic town and the largest settlement within the borough of Colchester in Essex, England.At the time of the census in 2001, it had a population of 104,390. However, the population is rapidly increasing, and has been named as one of Britain's fastest growing towns. As the...
and the Legio XIV was based at Wroxeter
Wroxeter
Wroxeter is a village in Shropshire, England. It forms part of the civil parish of Wroxeter and Uppington and is located in the Severn Valley about south-east of Shrewsbury.-History:...
.
Ostorius initiated further Romanisation during his command in the safer southern lands, founding Britain's first colony of military veterans at Camulodunum
Camulodunum
Camulodunum is the Roman name for the ancient settlement which is today's Colchester, a town in Essex, England. Camulodunum is claimed to be the oldest town in Britain as recorded by the Romans, existing as a Celtic settlement before the Roman conquest, when it became the first Roman town, and...
(modern Colchester
Colchester
Colchester is an historic town and the largest settlement within the borough of Colchester in Essex, England.At the time of the census in 2001, it had a population of 104,390. However, the population is rapidly increasing, and has been named as one of Britain's fastest growing towns. As the...
) in 49 and probably establishing a municipium
Municipium
Municipium , the prototype of English municipality, was the Latin term for a town or city. Etymologically the municipium was a social contract between municipes, the "duty holders," or citizens of the town. The duties, or munera, were a communal obligation assumed by the municipes in exchange for...
at Verulamium
Verulamium
Verulamium was an ancient town in Roman Britain. It was sited in the southwest of the modern city of St Albans in Hertfordshire, Great Britain. A large portion of the Roman city remains unexcavated, being now park and agricultural land, though much has been built upon...
(St Albans
St Albans
St Albans is a city in southern Hertfordshire, England, around north of central London, which forms the main urban area of the City and District of St Albans. It is a historic market town, and is now a sought-after dormitory town within the London commuter belt...
). His tactical skill rather than his political acumen was his strength however. He had received a difficult brief as the Claudian lowlands were economically unspectacular and Britain's mineral wealth lay in the barbarian lands instead. Capture of these would have to wait until later years.
In the meantime, Caratacus
Caratacus
Caratacus was a first century British chieftain of the Catuvellauni tribe, who led the British resistance to the Roman conquest....
, whose tribe, the Catuvellauni
Catuvellauni
The Catuvellauni were a tribe or state of south-eastern Britain before the Roman conquest.The fortunes of the Catuvellauni and their kings before the conquest can be traced through numismatic evidence and scattered references in classical histories. They are mentioned by Dio Cassius, who implies...
, had been defeated in the first phase of the conquest, had re-emerged as a leader of the Silures
Silures
The Silures were a powerful and warlike tribe of ancient Britain, occupying approximately the counties of Monmouthshire, Breconshire and Glamorganshire of present day South Wales; and possibly Gloucestershire and Herefordshire of present day England...
of south east Wales
Wales
Wales is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain, bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km²...
and Gloucestershire
Gloucestershire
Gloucestershire is a county in South West England. The county comprises part of the Cotswold Hills, part of the flat fertile valley of the River Severn, and the entire Forest of Dean....
. Their rising was controlled by a programme of legionary fortress construction, driving Caratacus north into the lands of the Ordovices
Ordovices
The Ordovices were one of the Celtic tribes living in Great Britain, before the Roman invasion of Britain. Its tribal lands were located in present day Wales and England between the Silures to the south and the Deceangli to the north-east...
. Ostorius managed to force him into an open conflict, after several years of guerrilla war
Guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of irregular warfare and refers to conflicts in which a small group of combatants including, but not limited to, armed civilians use military tactics, such as ambushes, sabotage, raids, the element of surprise, and extraordinary mobility to harass a larger and...
. They fought a battle, probably near the River Severn
River Severn
The River Severn is the longest river in Great Britain, at about , but the second longest on the British Isles, behind the River Shannon. It rises at an altitude of on Plynlimon, Ceredigion near Llanidloes, Powys, in the Cambrian Mountains of mid Wales...
and possibly near Caersws
Caersws
Caersws is a village and community sitting on the River Severn, at miles west of Newtown, Powys, and halfway between Aberystwyth and Shrewsbury.- History & Amenities :...
, where the Romans defeated the British leader in 51.
The Ordovices had fortified a ridge of steep hills above the river and the difficulty of the terrain behind them made an encircling manoeuvre by the Romans impossible. Although Ostorius was concerned at the seemingly impregnable defences, Tacitus records that the eagerness and loyalty of his troops persuaded him to attack and in the end the Britons were easily defeated. Caratacus' wife and daughter were captured and his brother surrendered while Caratacus himself fled to the territory of the Brigantes
Brigantes
The Brigantes were a Celtic tribe who in pre-Roman times controlled the largest section of what would become Northern England, and a significant part of the Midlands. Their kingdom is sometimes called Brigantia, and it was centred in what was later known as Yorkshire...
. However their queen, Cartimandua
Cartimandua
Cartimandua or Cartismandua was a queen of the Brigantes, a Celtic people in what is now Northern England, in the 1st century. She came to power around the time of the Roman conquest of Britain, and formed a large tribal agglomeration that became loyal to Rome...
, was loyal to Rome and handed him over in chains.
After the battle, Ostorius was honoured with triumphal
Roman triumph
The Roman triumph was a civil ceremony and religious rite of ancient Rome, held to publicly celebrate and sanctify the military achievement of an army commander who had won great military successes, or originally and traditionally, one who had successfully completed a foreign war. In Republican...
insignia but the victory did not entirely quell resistance in the Welsh borders. The Silures
Silures
The Silures were a powerful and warlike tribe of ancient Britain, occupying approximately the counties of Monmouthshire, Breconshire and Glamorganshire of present day South Wales; and possibly Gloucestershire and Herefordshire of present day England...
especially continued to harass Roman troops, supposedly after Ostorius had publicly said that they posed such a danger that they should be either exterminated or transplanted. A large legionary force occupied in building forts in Siluran territory was surrounded and attacked and only rescued with difficulty and considerable loss. This violent desperation on the part of the Silures can be attributed to their reaction to what Peter Salway
Peter Salway
Peter Salway is a British historian, who specialises in Roman Britain. He was a tutor for the Open University and later a fellow of Sidney Sussex College Cambridge and later at All Souls College Oxford. He is the author of Roman Britain , a volume in the Oxford History of England series.-References:...
calls Ostorius' lack of political judgement. The Silures had been galvanised by Ostorius' ill-thought out threats to destroy them and began taking Roman prisoners as hostages and distributing them amongst their neighbouring tribes. This had the effect of binding them all together and creating a new resistance movement.
Ostorius died unexpectedly in 52, supposedly "worn out with care" as Tacitus puts it, leaving Rome with a growing problem on its British frontiers. It has been claimed that his final resting place is in Clawdd Coch
Clawdd Coch
Clawdd Coch is a hamlet in the Vale of Glamorgan. It lies to the northeast of Tredodridge in the parish of Pendoylan...
in the Vale of Glamorgan
Vale of Glamorgan
The Vale of Glamorgan is a county borough in Wales; an exceptionally rich agricultural area, it lies in the southern part of Glamorgan, South Wales...
, southeast Wales. Silurian raids continued, defeating a legion led by Gaius Manlius Valens, before Aulus Didius Gallus
Aulus Didius Gallus
Aulus Didius Gallus was a Roman general and politician of the 1st century AD. He was governor of Britain between 52 and 57 AD.-Career:The career of Aulus Didius Gallus up to 51 can be partly reconstructed from an inscription from Olympia. He was quaestor under Tiberius, probably in 19...
arrived as replacement governor. The complete pacification of the area was achieved only 25 years later by Sextus Julius Frontinus
Sextus Julius Frontinus
Sextus Julius Frontinus was one of the most distinguished Roman aristocrats of the late 1st century AD, but is best known to the post-Classical world as an author of technical treatises, especially one dealing with the aqueducts of Rome....
.
Primary sources
- TacitusTacitusPublius Cornelius Tacitus was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors...
, AgricolaAgricola (book)The Agricola is a book by the Roman historian Tacitus, written c 98, which recounts the life of his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola, an eminent Roman general. It also covers, briefly, the geography and ethnography of ancient Britain...
14; AnnalsAnnals (Tacitus)The Annals by Tacitus is a history of the reigns of the four Roman Emperors succeeding Caesar Augustus. The surviving parts of the Annals extensively cover most of the reigns of Tiberius and Nero. The title Annals was probably not given by Tacitus, but derives from the fact that he treated this...
12:31-39 - Dio CassiusDio CassiusLucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus , known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was a Roman consul and a noted historian writing in Greek...
, Roman History 55:10.10
Secondary sources
- William Smith (ed) (1870), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology Vol 3 p. 734
- Anthony R Birley (1981), The Fasti of Roman Britain, pp. 41–44