Praxeology
Encyclopedia
Praxeology is the study of human action. Praxeology rejects the empirical methods of the natural sciences for the study of human action, because the observation of how humans act in simple situations cannot predict how they will act in complex situations. Etymologically defined as "the science of human action", the most common uses of the term are in connection with two traditions: the work of Ludwig von Mises
and the Austrian School of economics
, and the work of Tadeusz Kotarbiński
and the Polish School of Praxiology (spelled Praxiology).
of the sciences, where he published in his Théorie des sciences: Plan de Science intégrale in 1882:
The term, however, was in use with differing interpretations as far back as 1608, by Clemens Timpler
in his Philosophiae practicae systema methodicum. In this work, Timpler, when examining ethics
, goes on to say:
It was later mentioned by Robert Flint
in 1904. The popular definition of this word was first given by Alfred V. Espinas
(1844–1922), the French philosopher and sociologist and the forerunner of the modern Polish school of the science of efficient action. The Austro-American school of economics was also based on a philosophical science of the same kind.
In the slightly different spelling, praxiology, the word was used by the English psychologist Charles A. Mercier (in 1911), and then proposed by Knight Dunlap to John B. Watson as a better name for his behaviorism
. It was rejected by Watson, but was accepted by the Chinese physiologist of behavior, Zing-Yang Kuo
(b. 1898) in 1935, and mentioned by William McDougall
(in 1928, and later).
Previously the word praxiology, with the meaning Espinas gave to it, was used by Tadeusz Kotarbiński (in 1923) and some time later by several economists, such as the Ukrainian, Eugene Slutsky (1926) in his attempt to base economics on a theory of action, the Austrian Ludwig von Mises (1933), the Russian, Nicholas Ivanovitch Bukharin (1888–1938) during the Second International Congress of History of Science and Technology in London (in 1931), and the Pole, Oscar Lange (1904–1965) in 1959, and later.
The Sicilian philosopher, Carmelo Ottaviano, was using the Italianised version, prassiologia, in his treatises starting from 1935, but in his own way, as a theory of politics. After the Second World War the use of the term praxeology spread widely. After the emigration of von Mises to America his pupil Murray Rothbard
defended the praxeological approach. A revival of Espinas's approach in France was revealed in the works of P. Masse (1946), the eminent cybernetician, Georges Theodule Guilbaud (1953), the Belgian logician, Leo Apostel
(1957), the cybernetician, Anatol Rapoport
(1962), Henry Pierron, psychologist and lexicographer (1957), François Perroux
, economist (1957), the social psychologist, Robert Daval (1963), the well-known sociologist, Raymond Aron
(1963) and the methodologists, Abraham Antoine Moles and Roland Caude (1965).
Under the influence of Tadeusz Kotarbinski, praxeology flourished in Poland. A special 'Centre of Praxeology' (Zaklad Prakseologiczny) was created under the organizational guidance of the Polish Academy of Sciences, with its own periodical (from 1962), called at first Materiały Prakseologiczne (Praxeological Papers), and then abbreviated to Prakseologia. It published hundreds of papers by different authors, and the materials for a special vocabulary edited by Professor Tadeusz Pszczolowski, the leading praxeologist of the younger generation. A sweeping survey of the praxeological approach is to be found in the paper by the French statistician
, Micheline Petruszewycz, A propos de la praxéologie.
Ludwig von Mises was influenced several theories in forming his work on praxeology, including Immanuel Kant's
works, Max Weber
's work on methodological individualism
, and Carl Menger
's development of the subjective theory of value
.
is the basis of all praxeology, and it is the basic proposition that all specimens of the species homo sapiens, the homo agens, purposefully utilize means over a period of time in order to achieve desired ends. In his magnum opus
Human Action
, Von Mises defined “action” in the sense of the action axiom by elucidating:
Von Mises noted that praxeology is not concerned with the individual's definition of end satisfaction, just the way he sought that satisfaction and that individual's increase of their satisfaction by removing sources of dissatisfaction or "uneasiness". In his theory, an acting man is defined as one capable of voluntary and conscious behaviour—to be otherwise would be to make one a mere creature who simply reacts to stimuli
by instinct
. Similarly, an acting man must have a source of dissatisfaction which he believes can be changed, otherwise he cannot act.
Von Mises writes that economics, the study of human choice under conditions of scarcity, can be treated as a specialization of praxeology, the study of all human action. Like other members of the Austrian School, von Mises rejected the standard scientific approach of relying upon empirical observation
in the study of economics, and instead, favored the use of logical analysis, a logic which is influenced by Immanuel Kant
's analytic–synthetic distinction. Von Mises writes that the empirical methods used in the natural sciences cannot be applied to the social sciences because the principle of induction
does not apply. In essence, he believed that a theory constructed to predict how humans will act (what ends they will seek) in a "complex" situation could not arise from studying how they acted in "simple" situations. Furthermore, there are limits to how much can be learned from even a "simple situation". As a criticism to empirical studies seeking to find justification in the economic action of individuals, von Mises proposed that only the human actor knows the ends toward which he acts.
Another conclusion that von Mises reached was that decisions
are made on an ordinal basis. That is, it is impossible to carry out more than one action at once, the conscious mind
being capable of only one decision at a time—even if those decisions can be made in rapid order. Thus man will act to remove the most pressing source of dissatisfaction first and then move to the next most pressing source of dissatisfaction. Additionally, von Mises dismissed the notion that subjective
values could be calculated mathematically; man can not treat his values with cardinal numbers, e.g., "I prefer owning a television 2.5 times as much as owning a DVD player." As a person satisfies his first most important goal and after that his second most important goal, then his second most important goal is always less important than his first most important goal. Thus, the satisfaction, or utility
, that he derives from every further goal attained is less than that from the preceding goal. This assumes, of course, that the goals are independent, which is not always the case—for example, acquiring the television may enable one to pursue the goal of watching a documentary on biology, which may make one decide to study biology, which opens the goal of writing a research paper, and so on. In human society, many actions will be trading
activities where one person regards a possession of another person as more desirable than one of his own possessions, and the other person has a similar higher regard for his colleague's possession than he does for his own. This assertion modifies the classical economic view about exchange, which posits that individuals exchange goods and services that they both appraise as being equal in value. This subject of praxeology is known as catallactics
.
are as follows:
has argued that supporters of praxeology have advocated a rejection of scientific methods which involve directly using empirical data in the development of (falsifiable) theories; application of empirical data is fundamental to the scientific method. Supporters argue that empirical data in and of itself cannot explain anything, which in turn implies that empirical data cannot falsify a theory.
Ludwig von Mises
Ludwig Heinrich Edler von Mises was an Austrian economist, philosopher, and classical liberal who had a significant influence on the modern Libertarian movement and the "Austrian School" of economic thought.-Biography:-Early life:...
and the Austrian School of economics
Austrian School
The Austrian School of economics is a heterodox school of economic thought. It advocates methodological individualism in interpreting economic developments , the theory that money is non-neutral, the theory that the capital structure of economies consists of heterogeneous goods that have...
, and the work of Tadeusz Kotarbiński
Tadeusz Kotarbinski
Tadeusz Kotarbiński , a pupil of Kazimierz Twardowski, was a Polish philosopher, logician, one of the most representative figures of the Lwów-Warsaw School, and a member of the Polish Academy of Learning as well as the Polish Academy of Sciences...
and the Polish School of Praxiology (spelled Praxiology).
Origin and etymology
The neologism praxeology (Gr. praxis (πράξις), action, and logos, talk, speech) is often credited to Louis Bourdeau (1824–1900), the French author of a classificationClassification
Classification may refer to:* Library classification and classification in general* Taxonomic classification * Biological classification of organisms* Medical classification* Scientific classification...
of the sciences, where he published in his Théorie des sciences: Plan de Science intégrale in 1882:
The term, however, was in use with differing interpretations as far back as 1608, by Clemens Timpler
Clemens Timpler
Clemens Timpler was a German philosopher, physicist and theologian.Along with Jakob Degen , he is considered the most important Protestant metaphysician, establishing the Protestant Reformed Neuscholastik....
in his Philosophiae practicae systema methodicum. In this work, Timpler, when examining ethics
Ethics
Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that addresses questions about morality—that is, concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime, etc.Major branches of ethics include:...
, goes on to say:
It was later mentioned by Robert Flint
Robert Flint
Robert Flint was a Scottish theologian and philosopher, who wrote also on sociology.He was born near Dumfries and educated, at the University of Glasgow. After a few years of pastoral service, first in Aberdeen and then at Kilconquhar, Fife, he was appointed professor of moral philosophy and...
in 1904. The popular definition of this word was first given by Alfred V. Espinas
Alfred Espinas
Alfred Victor Espinas was a French thinker noted for having been an influence on Nietzsche. He was a student of Comte and Spencer...
(1844–1922), the French philosopher and sociologist and the forerunner of the modern Polish school of the science of efficient action. The Austro-American school of economics was also based on a philosophical science of the same kind.
In the slightly different spelling, praxiology, the word was used by the English psychologist Charles A. Mercier (in 1911), and then proposed by Knight Dunlap to John B. Watson as a better name for his behaviorism
Behaviorism
Behaviorism , also called the learning perspective , is a philosophy of psychology based on the proposition that all things that organisms do—including acting, thinking, and feeling—can and should be regarded as behaviors, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behavior...
. It was rejected by Watson, but was accepted by the Chinese physiologist of behavior, Zing-Yang Kuo
Zing-Yang Kuo
Kuo Zing-yang , was a world-renowned Chinese experimental and physiological psychologist. He was a renowned educator and is also notable as having been the President of Zhejiang University.-Biography:...
(b. 1898) in 1935, and mentioned by William McDougall
William McDougall
William McDougall may refer to:*William McDougall , Canadian lawyer and politician from Ontario*William McDougall , Canadian shipbuilder and politician from Nova Scotia...
(in 1928, and later).
Previously the word praxiology, with the meaning Espinas gave to it, was used by Tadeusz Kotarbiński (in 1923) and some time later by several economists, such as the Ukrainian, Eugene Slutsky (1926) in his attempt to base economics on a theory of action, the Austrian Ludwig von Mises (1933), the Russian, Nicholas Ivanovitch Bukharin (1888–1938) during the Second International Congress of History of Science and Technology in London (in 1931), and the Pole, Oscar Lange (1904–1965) in 1959, and later.
The Sicilian philosopher, Carmelo Ottaviano, was using the Italianised version, prassiologia, in his treatises starting from 1935, but in his own way, as a theory of politics. After the Second World War the use of the term praxeology spread widely. After the emigration of von Mises to America his pupil Murray Rothbard
Murray Rothbard
Murray Newton Rothbard was an American author and economist of the Austrian School who helped define capitalist libertarianism and popularized a form of free-market anarchism he termed "anarcho-capitalism." Rothbard wrote over twenty books and is considered a centrally important figure in the...
defended the praxeological approach. A revival of Espinas's approach in France was revealed in the works of P. Masse (1946), the eminent cybernetician, Georges Theodule Guilbaud (1953), the Belgian logician, Leo Apostel
Leo Apostel
Leo Apostel was a Belgian philosopher and professor at the Vrije Universiteit Brussel and the Universiteit Gent. Apostel was an advocate of interdisciplinary research and the bridging of the gap between exact science and humanities.- Biography :Leo Apostel was born Antwerp in 1925...
(1957), the cybernetician, Anatol Rapoport
Anatol Rapoport
Anatol Rapoport was a Russian-born American Jewish mathematical psychologist. He contributed to general systems theory, mathematical biology and to the mathematical modeling of social interaction and stochastic models of contagion.-Biography:...
(1962), Henry Pierron, psychologist and lexicographer (1957), François Perroux
François Perroux
François Perroux was a French economist. He was named Professor at the Collège de France, after having taught at the University of Lyon and the University of Paris...
, economist (1957), the social psychologist, Robert Daval (1963), the well-known sociologist, Raymond Aron
Raymond Aron
Raymond-Claude-Ferdinand Aron was a French philosopher, sociologist, journalist and political scientist.He is best known for his 1955 book The Opium of the Intellectuals, the title of which inverts Karl Marx's claim that religion was the opium of the people -- in contrast, Aron argued that in...
(1963) and the methodologists, Abraham Antoine Moles and Roland Caude (1965).
Under the influence of Tadeusz Kotarbinski, praxeology flourished in Poland. A special 'Centre of Praxeology' (Zaklad Prakseologiczny) was created under the organizational guidance of the Polish Academy of Sciences, with its own periodical (from 1962), called at first Materiały Prakseologiczne (Praxeological Papers), and then abbreviated to Prakseologia. It published hundreds of papers by different authors, and the materials for a special vocabulary edited by Professor Tadeusz Pszczolowski, the leading praxeologist of the younger generation. A sweeping survey of the praxeological approach is to be found in the paper by the French statistician
Statistician
A statistician is someone who works with theoretical or applied statistics. The profession exists in both the private and public sectors. The core of that work is to measure, interpret, and describe the world and human activity patterns within it...
, Micheline Petruszewycz, A propos de la praxéologie.
Ludwig von Mises was influenced several theories in forming his work on praxeology, including Immanuel Kant's
Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher from Königsberg , researching, lecturing and writing on philosophy and anthropology at the end of the 18th Century Enlightenment....
works, Max Weber
Max Weber
Karl Emil Maximilian "Max" Weber was a German sociologist and political economist who profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the discipline of sociology itself...
's work on methodological individualism
Methodological individualism
Methodological individualism is the theory that social phenomena can only be accurately explained by showing how they result from the intentional states that motivate the individual actors. The idea has been used to criticize historicism, structural functionalism, and the roles of social class,...
, and Carl Menger
Carl Menger
Carl Menger was the founder of the Austrian School of economics, famous for contributing to the development of the theory of marginal utility, which contested the cost-of-production theories of value, developed by the classical economists such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo.- Biography :Menger...
's development of the subjective theory of value
Subjective theory of value
The subjective theory of value is an economic theory of value that identifies worth as being based on the wants and needs of the members of a society, as opposed to value being inherent to an object....
.
On praxeology
Von Mises writes that action axiomAction axiom
An action axiom is an axiom that embodies a criterion for recommending action. Action axioms are of the form "IF a condition holds, THEN the following should be done." Decision theory and, hence, decision analysis are based on the maximum expected utility action axiom...
is the basis of all praxeology, and it is the basic proposition that all specimens of the species homo sapiens, the homo agens, purposefully utilize means over a period of time in order to achieve desired ends. In his magnum opus
Magnum opus
Magnum opus , from the Latin meaning "great work", refers to the largest, and perhaps the best, greatest, most popular, or most renowned achievement of a writer, artist, or composer.-Related terms:Sometimes the term magnum opus is used to refer to simply "a great work" rather than "the...
Human Action
Human Action
Human Action: A Treatise on Economics is the magnum opus of the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises. It presents a case for laissez-faire capitalism based on Mises' praxeology, or rational investigation of human decision-making. It rejects positivism within economics...
, Von Mises defined “action” in the sense of the action axiom by elucidating:
Von Mises noted that praxeology is not concerned with the individual's definition of end satisfaction, just the way he sought that satisfaction and that individual's increase of their satisfaction by removing sources of dissatisfaction or "uneasiness". In his theory, an acting man is defined as one capable of voluntary and conscious behaviour—to be otherwise would be to make one a mere creature who simply reacts to stimuli
Stimulation
Stimulation is the action of various agents on nerves, muscles, or a sensory end organ, by which activity is evoked; especially, the nervous impulse produced by various agents on nerves, or a sensory end organ, by which the part connected with the nerve is thrown into a state of activity.The word...
by instinct
Instinct
Instinct or innate behavior is the inherent inclination of a living organism toward a particular behavior.The simplest example of an instinctive behavior is a fixed action pattern, in which a very short to medium length sequence of actions, without variation, are carried out in response to a...
. Similarly, an acting man must have a source of dissatisfaction which he believes can be changed, otherwise he cannot act.
Von Mises writes that economics, the study of human choice under conditions of scarcity, can be treated as a specialization of praxeology, the study of all human action. Like other members of the Austrian School, von Mises rejected the standard scientific approach of relying upon empirical observation
Observation
Observation is either an activity of a living being, such as a human, consisting of receiving knowledge of the outside world through the senses, or the recording of data using scientific instruments. The term may also refer to any data collected during this activity...
in the study of economics, and instead, favored the use of logical analysis, a logic which is influenced by Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant was a German philosopher from Königsberg , researching, lecturing and writing on philosophy and anthropology at the end of the 18th Century Enlightenment....
's analytic–synthetic distinction. Von Mises writes that the empirical methods used in the natural sciences cannot be applied to the social sciences because the principle of induction
Inductive reasoning
Inductive reasoning, also known as induction or inductive logic, is a kind of reasoning that constructs or evaluates propositions that are abstractions of observations. It is commonly construed as a form of reasoning that makes generalizations based on individual instances...
does not apply. In essence, he believed that a theory constructed to predict how humans will act (what ends they will seek) in a "complex" situation could not arise from studying how they acted in "simple" situations. Furthermore, there are limits to how much can be learned from even a "simple situation". As a criticism to empirical studies seeking to find justification in the economic action of individuals, von Mises proposed that only the human actor knows the ends toward which he acts.
Another conclusion that von Mises reached was that decisions
Decision making
Decision making can be regarded as the mental processes resulting in the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios. Every decision making process produces a final choice. The output can be an action or an opinion of choice.- Overview :Human performance in decision terms...
are made on an ordinal basis. That is, it is impossible to carry out more than one action at once, the conscious mind
Mind
The concept of mind is understood in many different ways by many different traditions, ranging from panpsychism and animism to traditional and organized religious views, as well as secular and materialist philosophies. Most agree that minds are constituted by conscious experience and intelligent...
being capable of only one decision at a time—even if those decisions can be made in rapid order. Thus man will act to remove the most pressing source of dissatisfaction first and then move to the next most pressing source of dissatisfaction. Additionally, von Mises dismissed the notion that subjective
Subjectivity
Subjectivity refers to the subject and his or her perspective, feelings, beliefs, and desires. In philosophy, the term is usually contrasted with objectivity.-Qualia:...
values could be calculated mathematically; man can not treat his values with cardinal numbers, e.g., "I prefer owning a television 2.5 times as much as owning a DVD player." As a person satisfies his first most important goal and after that his second most important goal, then his second most important goal is always less important than his first most important goal. Thus, the satisfaction, or utility
Utility
In economics, utility is a measure of customer satisfaction, referring to the total satisfaction received by a consumer from consuming a good or service....
, that he derives from every further goal attained is less than that from the preceding goal. This assumes, of course, that the goals are independent, which is not always the case—for example, acquiring the television may enable one to pursue the goal of watching a documentary on biology, which may make one decide to study biology, which opens the goal of writing a research paper, and so on. In human society, many actions will be trading
Trade
Trade is the transfer of ownership of goods and services from one person or entity to another. Trade is sometimes loosely called commerce or financial transaction or barter. A network that allows trade is called a market. The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and...
activities where one person regards a possession of another person as more desirable than one of his own possessions, and the other person has a similar higher regard for his colleague's possession than he does for his own. This assertion modifies the classical economic view about exchange, which posits that individuals exchange goods and services that they both appraise as being equal in value. This subject of praxeology is known as catallactics
Catallactics
Catallactics is the praxeological theory of the way the free market system reaches exchange ratios and prices.It aims to analyse all actions based on monetary calculation and trace the formation of prices back to the point where an agent makes his or her choices. It explains prices as they are and...
.
Categories
The categories of praxeology, the general, formal theory of human action, as outlined by Murray RothbardMurray Rothbard
Murray Newton Rothbard was an American author and economist of the Austrian School who helped define capitalist libertarianism and popularized a form of free-market anarchism he termed "anarcho-capitalism." Rothbard wrote over twenty books and is considered a centrally important figure in the...
are as follows:
- A. The Theory of the Isolated Individual (Crusoe EconomicsRobinson Crusoe economyA Robinson Crusoe Economy is a simple framework to study trade in economics. It assumes an economy with one consumer, one producer and two goods. The title "Robinson Crusoe" is a reference to the novel of the same name authored by Daniel Defoe in 1719...
) - B. The Theory of Voluntary Interpersonal Exchange (CatallacticsCatallacticsCatallactics is the praxeological theory of the way the free market system reaches exchange ratios and prices.It aims to analyse all actions based on monetary calculation and trace the formation of prices back to the point where an agent makes his or her choices. It explains prices as they are and...
, or the Economics of the Market)- 1. BarterBarterBarter is a method of exchange by which goods or services are directly exchanged for other goods or services without using a medium of exchange, such as money. It is usually bilateral, but may be multilateral, and usually exists parallel to monetary systems in most developed countries, though to a...
- 2. With Medium of ExchangeMoneyMoney is any object or record that is generally accepted as payment for goods and services and repayment of debts in a given country or socio-economic context. The main functions of money are distinguished as: a medium of exchange; a unit of account; a store of value; and, occasionally in the past,...
- a. On the Unhampered MarketFree marketA free market is a competitive market where prices are determined by supply and demand. However, the term is also commonly used for markets in which economic intervention and regulation by the state is limited to tax collection, and enforcement of private ownership and contracts...
- b. Effects of Violent InterventionGovernmentGovernment refers to the legislators, administrators, and arbitrators in the administrative bureaucracy who control a state at a given time, and to the system of government by which they are organized...
with the Market - c. Effects of Violent Abolition of the Market (Socialism)
- a. On the Unhampered Market
- 1. Barter
- C. The Theory of WarWarWar is a state of organized, armed, and often prolonged conflict carried on between states, nations, or other parties typified by extreme aggression, social disruption, and usually high mortality. War should be understood as an actual, intentional and widespread armed conflict between political...
– Hostile Action - D. The Theory of Games (e.g., von NeumannJohn von NeumannJohn von Neumann was a Hungarian-American mathematician and polymath who made major contributions to a vast number of fields, including set theory, functional analysis, quantum mechanics, ergodic theory, geometry, fluid dynamics, economics and game theory, computer science, numerical analysis,...
and MorgensternOskar MorgensternOskar Morgenstern was a German-born Austrian-School economist. He, along with John von Neumann, helped found the mathematical field of game theory ....
) - E. Unknown
Criticisms
Critics argue that praxeology rejects the scientific method and the use of empirical data. Thomas MayerThomas Mayer
Thomas Mayer is emeritus professor of economics at the University of California, Davis. He previously taught at West Virginia University, Notre Dame University, Michigan State University, and the University of California, Berkeley. He is known for his work in monetary policy and economic...
has argued that supporters of praxeology have advocated a rejection of scientific methods which involve directly using empirical data in the development of (falsifiable) theories; application of empirical data is fundamental to the scientific method. Supporters argue that empirical data in and of itself cannot explain anything, which in turn implies that empirical data cannot falsify a theory.
See also
- Bounded rationalityBounded rationalityBounded rationality is the idea that in decision making, rationality of individuals is limited by the information they have, the cognitive limitations of their minds, and the finite amount of time they have to make a decision...
- Cognitive scienceCognitive scienceCognitive science is the interdisciplinary scientific study of mind and its processes. It examines what cognition is, what it does and how it works. It includes research on how information is processed , represented, and transformed in behaviour, nervous system or machine...
- Methodological individualismMethodological individualismMethodological individualism is the theory that social phenomena can only be accurately explained by showing how they result from the intentional states that motivate the individual actors. The idea has been used to criticize historicism, structural functionalism, and the roles of social class,...
- Self-efficacySelf-efficacySelf-efficacy is a term used in psychology, roughly corresponding to a person's belief in their own competence.It has been defined as the belief that one is capable of performing in a certain manner to attain certain set of goals. It is believed that our personalized ideas of self-efficacy affect...
- SemioticsSemioticsSemiotics, also called semiotic studies or semiology, is the study of signs and sign processes , indication, designation, likeness, analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication...
- Social actionsSocial actionsIn sociology, social action refers to an act which takes into account the actions and reactions of individuals .According to Max Weber, "an Action is 'social' if the acting individual takes account of the behavior of others and is thereby oriented in its course" .- Social action and Max Weber :The...
Further reading
- Selgin, G. A.George SelginGeorge A. Selgin is a professor of economics in the Terry College of Business at the University of Georgia, a senior fellow at the Cato Institute in Washington DC, and an associate editor of Econ Journal Watch...
(1988). Praxeology and Understanding: An Analysis of the Controversy in Austrian Economics. The Review of Austrian Economics, 2, 19–58.
External links
- Preface to von Mises' book Epistemological Problems of Economics
- The Ultimate Foundation of Economic Science by Ludwig von Mises
- Praxeology: The Methodology of Austrian Economics by Murray Rothbard
- Praxeology as the Method of the Social Sciences by Murray Rothbard
- In Defense of Extreme Apriorism by Murray Rothbard
- Economics and Praxeology by Ludwig von Mises
- Time and Praxeology by Ludwig von Mises
- Praxeology as Law & Economics by Josef Šíma
- Mises's Non-Trivial Insight by Robert P. MurphyRobert P. MurphyRobert P. "Bob" Murphy is an Austrian School economist and anarcho-capitalist.-Education and personal life:Murphy completed his Bachelor of Arts in economics at Hillsdale College in 1998. He then moved back to his home state of New York to continue his studies at New York University. Murphy earned...
- Psychology versus Praxeology by Robert P. Murphy
- The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism on Praxeology by Ronald Hamowy
- Praxeology, Economics and its Subsets Defined by Nima Mahdjour