Postpartum depression
Encyclopedia
Postpartum depression also called postnatal depression, is a form of clinical depression
which can affect women, and less frequently men, typically after childbirth
. Studies report prevalence rates among women from 5% to 25%, but methodological differences among the studies make the actual prevalence rate unclear. Among men, in particular new fathers, the incidence of postpartum depression has been estimated to be between 1.2% and 25.5%. Postpartum depression occurs in women after they have carried a child, usually in the first few months, and may last up to several months or even a year. Symptoms include sadness, fatigue, changes in sleeping and eating patterns, reduced libido, crying episodes, anxiety, and irritability. Although a number of risk factors have been identified, the causes of PPD are not well understood. Many women recover with a treatment consisting of a support group or counseling.
The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale
, a standardized self-reported questionnaire
, may be used to identify women who have postpartum depression.
coupled with hormonal changes in a woman's body shortly after giving birth. It may be mild or severe. Most cases are noted in women who have babies with severe colic or other underlying causes that result in abnormal sleep schedules. PPE is not the same as postpartum depression, but can be classified as a postpartum depression even though exhaustion is usually only caused from extreme fatigue. Medical treatment is minimal. PPE can last from 1 to 20 days and responds with adequate amounts of sleep.
are a mild and transitory moodiness suffered by up to 80% of postnatal women (and in some cases fathers). Symptoms typically last from a few hours to several days, and include tearfulness, irritability, hypochondriasis, sleeplessness, impairment of concentration, feelings of isolation and headache. The maternity blues are not the same thing as postpartum depression, nor are they a precursor to postpartum depression or postnatal psychosis
.
One method of detecting Postnatal Depression (PND) is the use of Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. If the new mother scores more than 13, she is likely to develop PND.
is given in parentheses, where larger values indicate larger effects):
Of these, three factors - formula feeding, a history of depression, and cigarette smoking - have been shown to be additive effects.
These factors are known to correlate
with PPD. "Correlation" in this case means that, for example, high levels of prenatal depression are associated with high levels of postnatal depression, and low levels of prenatal depression are associated with low levels of postnatal depression. But this does not mean the prenatal depression causes postnatal depression—they might both be caused by some third factor. In contrast, some factors, such as lack of social support, almost certainly cause postpartum depression. (The causal role of lack of social support in PPD is strongly suggested by several studies, including O'Hara 1985, Field et al. 1985; and Gotlib et al. 1991.) Anthropologists Kruckman and Stern tested the idea cross culturally, and their pioneering study determined six ways in which postpartum rituals, including the use of the postpartum ritual, la cuarentena, in Chicago Latina mothers, to protect or cushion the expression of mood disorders.
In addition to Beck’s meta-analysis cited above, other academic studies have shown a correlation between a mother’s race, social class
and/or sexual orientation
and postpartum depression. In 2006 Segre et al., conducted a study "on the extent to which race/ethnicity is a risk factor" for PPD. Studying 26,877 postpartum women they found that 15.7% were depressed. Of the women suffering from PPD, 25.2% were African American, 22.9% were American Indian/Native Alaskan, 15.5% were Caucasian, 15.3% were Hispanic, and 11.5% were Asian/Pacific Islander. Even when "important social factors such as age, income, education, marital status, and baby’s health were controlled, African American women still emerged with significantly increased risk for…PPD".
Segre et al., also found a correlation between a mother’s social class
and PPD. Not surprisingly, women with fewer resources indicate a higher level of postpartum depression and stress than those with more financial resources. Rates of PPD decreased as income increased as follows: Women with fewer resources are also more likely to have an unintended or unwanted pregnancy, further increasing risk of PPD. Beck (2001) concurs with this, stating that these women are at risk for PPD because they may experience stressors such as financial difficulties. Single mothers of low income may have fewer resources that they have access to while transitioning into motherhood.
Likewise, a study conducted by Howell et al. in 2006 confirms Segre’s findings that women who are not Caucasian and in lower socioeconomic categories have more symptoms of PPD.
In a 2007 study conducted by Ross et al., lesbian and bisexual mothers were tested for PPD and then compared with a heterosexual sample. Ross et al. found that "lesbian and bisexual biological mothers had significantly higher Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) scores than the…sample of heterosexual women." The Ross study suggests that PPD may be more common among lesbian and bisexual mothers. From a study conducted in 2005 by Ross, the higher rates of PPD in lesbian/bisexual mothers than heterosexual mothers may be due to less "social support, particularly from their families of origin and…additional stress due to homophobic discrimination" in society.
of PPD is not well understood.
It is sometimes assumed that postpartum depression is caused by a lack of vitamins. Other studies tend to show that more likely causes are the significant changes in a woman's hormones during pregnancy. Yet other studies have suggested there is no known correlation between hormones and postpartum mood disorders, and hormonal treatment has not helped postpartum depression victims.
Further, fathers, who are not undergoing profound hormonal changes, suffer PPD at relatively high rates (e.g., Goodman 2004). Finally, all mothers experience these hormonal changes, yet only about 10–15% suffer PPD. This does not mean, however, that hormones do not play a role in PPD. For example, in women with a history of PPD, a hormone treatment simulating pregnancy and parturition caused these women to suffer mood symptoms. The same treatment, however, did not cause mood symptoms in women with no history of PPD. One interpretation of these results is that there is a subgroup of women who are vulnerable to hormone changes during pregnancy. Another interpretation is that simulating a pregnancy will trigger PPD in women who are vulnerable to PPD for any of the reasons indicated by Beck's meta-analysis (summarized above).
Profound lifestyle changes brought about by caring for the infant
are also frequently claimed to cause PPD, but, again, there is little evidence for this hypothesis. Mothers who have had several previous children without suffering PPD can nonetheless suffer it with their latest child (Nielsen Forman et al. 2000). Plus, most women experience profound lifestyle changes with their first pregnancy, yet most do not suffer PPD.
Sometimes a pre-existing mental illness
can be brought to the forefront through PPD . It is widely found in women whose families have a history of mental illnesses and disorders such as bipolar disorder
, schizophrenia
and autism
, and above-average rates of drug addiction and alcoholism.
In 2009, researchers at the University of California, Irvine
, reported that the levels of placental corticotropin-releasing hormone
(CRH) during the 25th week of pregnancy may help predict a woman's chances of developing postpartum depression.
For mothers suffering inadequate social support or other costly and stressful circumstances, negative emotions directed towards a new infant could serve an important evolved function by causing the mother to reduce her investment in an unaffordable infant, thereby reducing her costs. Numerous studies support the correlation between postpartum depression and lack of social support or other childcare stressors (Beck 2001; Hagen 1999).
Kruckman, using observations from anthropological field work, suggests that supportive rituals and knowledge, if projected to the mother in a meaningful and sincere fashion, can affect the hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal function and the production of endocrine signal molecules, and reduce the expression of anxiety or panic in postpartum women.
Mothers with postpartum depression can unconsciously exhibit fewer positive emotions and more negative emotions toward their children, are less responsive and less sensitive to infant cues, less emotionally available, have a less successful maternal role attainment, and have infants that are less securely attached; and in more extreme cases, some women may have thoughts of harming their children (Beck 1995, 1996b; Cohn et al. 1990, 1991; Field et al. 1985; Fowles 1996; Hoffman and Drotar 1991; Jennings et al. 1999; Murray 1991; Murray and Cooper 1996). In other words, most mothers with PPD are suffering some kind of cost, like inadequate social support, and consequently are mothering less.
In this view, mothers with PPD do not have a mental illness, but instead cannot afford to take care of the new infant without more social support, more resources, etc. Treatment should therefore focus on helping mothers get what they need. (See Hagen 1999 and Hagen and Barrett, n.d.)
. Women diagnosed with postpartum depression often focus more on the negative events of childcare, resulting in poor coping strategies (Murray).
There are four groups of coping methods, each divided into a different style of coping subgroups. Avoidance coping
is one of the most common strategies used (Murray). It consists of denial and behavioral disengagement subgroups (for example, an avoidant mother might not respond to her baby crying). This strategy however, does not resolve any problems and ends up negatively impacting the mother’s mood, similarly of the other coping strategies used (Honey).
Senior Psychologists then scored the interaction between mother and child. The first two taped situations were scored on a five point scale; 1 (being the area of most concern) to 5 (being an area of strength). In the third situation, the attachment behavior was put into three groups based on how the child reacted to the mother's return.
Analysis showed only one difference between the groups. In the free play situation, children of mothers with high EPDS scores showed less interest in playing with their mothers and exploring on their own, than the children of mothers with low EPDS scores. The mothers too only showed one difference. Those with a high EDPS score showed little maternal emotional availability to the child.
Following the results, Edhborg performed a cluster analysis, keeping interest on the different interaction styles. Some children did show signs of depression, but when comparing the children it was found that there is no significance with the EPDS scores and the interaction styles. The study did find, however, that children of high EPDS scorers were less involved in the free play situation than the children of low EPDS scorers, showing that children of high EPDS are more likely to be insecure.
When performing the structured task from the first situation it showed that the mothers with high EPDS were “aware of their unavailability for the child in the early postpartum period and thus tried harder… to help their children succeed in the task” (Edhborg). This overreaction proves that too much interaction can cause a negative mood in the child and a continuing difficulty in mother-child communication.
Attachment issues have been shown to be a problem in older children, also. As a result of being exposed to the depression symptoms, as an infant, older children may have impaired cognitive and socio-emotional developments. The lack of attachment can also cause troubles in the interaction with others and personal independence (Long-term). Children with these issues have a higher risk of being diagnosed with depression later in life as well (Honey).
John Bowlby's attachment theory explains how infants learn about their environment while keeping their caregiver close. Bowlby explains his theories with the principles of variety, heredity, and natural selection. Children need balance between the outside world and the love and support of their parents. Bowlby concentrates on a child's instinct and human nature, in opposition of Locke who believes that a newborn has no instinct to direct him or her. (Chasse, J.)
In the US, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends that the first prenatal visit include screening for depression, stress, support, and whether the pregnancy was planned. However providers do not consistently provide screening and appropriate follow-up.
Currently, Alberta is the only province in Canada with universal PPD screening which has been in place since 2003. The PPD screening is carried out by Public Health nurses in conjunction with the baby's immunization schedule.
, registered dietitian, or midwife regarding optimal nutrition during pregnancy and after birth.
The following nutritional information may be beneficial in achieving a well-balanced diet during and after pregnancy, but studies are needed to confirm their role in preventing postpartum depression.
Omega-3 fatty acids: Some experts believe that postpartum depression can be attributed to depletion of omega 3 fatty acids from the mother's brain to support development of the brain of the fetus or breast fed infant. This can be prevented by ensuring that sufficient omega 3 fatty acids are provided in the mother's diet. Good natural sources of omega 3 fatty acids include edible linseed oil, certain fish, grass fed rather than grain fed meat, and eggs from chickens fed on flax seed or other feed high in omega 3 fats. Omega 3 fatty acids can also be purchased in capsule form as a dietary supplement.
Protein
can be found in a wide variety of foods. Some examples follow: 3 ounces of most meat products contain 25 grams of protein, 3 large eggs have approximately 19 grams, and 3 ounces of Swiss cheese have about 15 grams.
Hydration: One of the most important roles in any diet (especially for pregnant and nursing mothers) is that of hydration. Physicians may recommend that pregnant women consume ten 8-ounce glasses of water every day. Mothers who are nursing are strongly urged to drink a tall glass of water, milk or juice before sitting down to breastfeed their child. Women should consult with their physicians about caffeine and alcohol consumption postpartum.
Vitamins: A pregnant and postpartum woman should speak with her physician for information about, and a recommendation for, a daily prenatal/postnatal vitamin
supplement.
B Vitamins
Some limited research has indicated that the intake of B vitamins, specifically riboflavin
, can help reduce the chance of post partum depression. B vitamins
are water soluble and must be replenished each day.
Appetite
: If a woman finds herself with a loss of appetite
or other eating disturbance, she should consult her physician. This may be a sign of postpartum depression and therefore should be discussed with a doctor.
Women need to be taken seriously when symptoms occur. This is a twofold practice: First, the postpartum woman will want to trust her intuition about how she is feeling and believe that her symptoms are real enough to tell her significant other, a close friend, and/or her medical practitioner; erring on the side of caution will go a long way in the treatment of PPD. Second, the people in whom she confides must take her symptoms seriously as well, aiding her with treatment and support. Partners, friends and physicians may notice changes in a postpartum mother that she may not. Knowing that PPD is treatable with a variety of methods can make persistence in seeking treatment easier.
Various treatment options include:
An experienced medical professional will work with a postpartum mother to develop a treatment plan that is right for her. This plan may include any combination of the above options, and might include some discussion or feedback from/with a partner. If a woman suffering from PPD does not feel she is being taken seriously or is being recommended a treatment plan she does not feel comfortable with, she will want to seek a second opinion.
A 1997 study conducted by Appleby et al., confirms that postpartum depressed mothers’ symptoms promptly improved at similar rates when treated with cognitive behavioral therapy or the antidepressant fluoxetine
. “A group of 61 depressed mothers completed a 12-week treatment program with or without the antidepressant plus one session versus six sessions of counseling.” Improvement followed after “one to four weeks of either treatment.” The findings of Appleby et al.’s study conclusively showed that combining counseling with drug therapy did not add to the improvement of just drug therapy or just counseling. This suggests that counseling is equally as effective a treatment for PPD as medication, and that “the choice of treatment [psychotherapy vs. medication] may…be made by the women themselves”. Other forms of therapy (like group therapy and home visitors) are also effective treatments for PPD.
A woman will want to discuss the various treatment options available with her physician and, if considering drug therapy, should speak about which medications are safe to take while breastfeeding
.
Treatment for PPD can reduce the length of suffering and its severity. Untreated, the Baby Blues may go away on its own (and does in most cases). PPD may or may not go away without treatment. Speaking to a health care provider as soon as symptoms occur is the safest way to ensure prompt treatment and return to normal life.
According to The National Institutes of Mental Health, studies show that the childbearing years are when a woman is most likely to experience depression in her lifetime. Approximately 15% of all women will experience postpartum depression following the birth of a child. (Chasse, J). When the mental health of the mother is compromised, it affects the entire family. (Postpartum Support International).
Treatment for Postnatal Psychosis is essential; it will not go away without medical attention.
Clinical depression
Major depressive disorder is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and by loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities...
which can affect women, and less frequently men, typically after childbirth
Childbirth
Childbirth is the culmination of a human pregnancy or gestation period with the birth of one or more newborn infants from a woman's uterus...
. Studies report prevalence rates among women from 5% to 25%, but methodological differences among the studies make the actual prevalence rate unclear. Among men, in particular new fathers, the incidence of postpartum depression has been estimated to be between 1.2% and 25.5%. Postpartum depression occurs in women after they have carried a child, usually in the first few months, and may last up to several months or even a year. Symptoms include sadness, fatigue, changes in sleeping and eating patterns, reduced libido, crying episodes, anxiety, and irritability. Although a number of risk factors have been identified, the causes of PPD are not well understood. Many women recover with a treatment consisting of a support group or counseling.
The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale
Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale
The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale is a 10-item questionnaire that developed to identify women who have PPD. Items of the scale correspond to various clinical depression symptoms, such as guilt feeling, sleep disturbance, low energy, anhedonia, and suicidal ideation...
, a standardized self-reported questionnaire
Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not always the case...
, may be used to identify women who have postpartum depression.
Postpartum Exhaustion (PPE)
PPE is caused by sleep deprivationSleep deprivation
Sleep deprivation is the condition of not having enough sleep; it can be either chronic or acute. A chronic sleep-restricted state can cause fatigue, daytime sleepiness, clumsiness and weight loss or weight gain. It adversely affects the brain and cognitive function. Few studies have compared the...
coupled with hormonal changes in a woman's body shortly after giving birth. It may be mild or severe. Most cases are noted in women who have babies with severe colic or other underlying causes that result in abnormal sleep schedules. PPE is not the same as postpartum depression, but can be classified as a postpartum depression even though exhaustion is usually only caused from extreme fatigue. Medical treatment is minimal. PPE can last from 1 to 20 days and responds with adequate amounts of sleep.
PPD and the "baby blues"
Baby or maternity bluesMaternity blues
The postpartum blues, maternity blues, or baby blues is a transient condition that 75-80% of mothers could experience shortly after childbirth with a wide variety of symptoms which generally involve mood lability, tearfulness, and some mild anxiety and depressive symptoms...
are a mild and transitory moodiness suffered by up to 80% of postnatal women (and in some cases fathers). Symptoms typically last from a few hours to several days, and include tearfulness, irritability, hypochondriasis, sleeplessness, impairment of concentration, feelings of isolation and headache. The maternity blues are not the same thing as postpartum depression, nor are they a precursor to postpartum depression or postnatal psychosis
Postpartum psychosis
Postpartum psychosis is a term that covers a group of mental illnesses with the sudden onset of psychotic symptoms following childbirth. In this group there are at least a dozen organic psychoses, which are described under another heading "organic pre- and postpartum psychoses"...
.
Symptoms
Symptoms of PPD can occur anytime in the first year postpartum and include, but are not limited to, the following:- Sadness
- Hopelessness
- Low self-esteem
- Guilt
- A feeling of being overwhelmed
- Sleep and eating disturbances
- Inability to be comforted
- Exhaustion
- Emptiness
- AnhedoniaAnhedoniaIn psychology and psychiatry, anhedonia is defined as the inability to experience pleasure from activities usually found enjoyable, e.g. hobbies, exercise, social interaction or sexual activity....
- Social withdrawal
- Low or no energy
- Becoming easily frustrated
- Feeling inadequate in taking care of the baby
- Impaired speech and writing
- Spells of anger towards others
- Increased anxiety or panic attacks
- Decreased sex drive – see Sex after pregnancySex after pregnancySex after pregnancy is often delayed for several weeks or months, and may be difficult and painful for women. Injury to the perineum or surgical cuts to the vagina during childbirth can cause sexual dysfunction...
One method of detecting Postnatal Depression (PND) is the use of Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale. If the new mother scores more than 13, she is likely to develop PND.
Risk factors
While the causes of PPD are not understood, a number of factors have been identified as predictors of PPD (the effect sizeEffect size
In statistics, an effect size is a measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables in a statistical population, or a sample-based estimate of that quantity...
is given in parentheses, where larger values indicate larger effects):
- Formula feeding rather than breast-feeding (2.04)
- A history of depression (1.87) (.38 to.39) Beck (2001)
- Cigarette smoking (1.58)
- Low self esteem (.45 to. 47) Beck (2001)
- Childcare stress (.45 to .46) Beck (2001)
- Prenatal depression during pregnancy (.44 to .45) Beck (2001)
- Prenatal anxiety (.41 to .45) Beck (2001)
- Life stress (.38 to .40) Beck (2001)
- Low social support (.36 to .41) Beck (2001)
- Poor marital relationship (.39) Beck (2001)
- Infant temperament problems/colicBaby colicColic is a condition in which an otherwise healthy baby cries or displays symptoms of distress frequently and for extended periods, without any discernible reason...
(.33 to .34) Beck (2001) - Maternity bluesMaternity bluesThe postpartum blues, maternity blues, or baby blues is a transient condition that 75-80% of mothers could experience shortly after childbirth with a wide variety of symptoms which generally involve mood lability, tearfulness, and some mild anxiety and depressive symptoms...
(.25 to .31) Beck (2001) - Single Marital Status (.21 to .25) Beck (2001)
- Low socioeconomic status (.19 to .22) Beck (2001)
- Unplanned/unwanted pregnancyUnintended pregnancyUnintended pregnancies are those in which conception was not intended by the female sexual partner. Worldwide, 38% of pregnancies were unintended in 1999 . Unintended pregnancies are the primary cause of induced abortion, resulting in about 42 million induced abortions per year...
(.14 to .17) Beck (2001)
Of these, three factors - formula feeding, a history of depression, and cigarette smoking - have been shown to be additive effects.
These factors are known to correlate
Correlation
In statistics, dependence refers to any statistical relationship between two random variables or two sets of data. Correlation refers to any of a broad class of statistical relationships involving dependence....
with PPD. "Correlation" in this case means that, for example, high levels of prenatal depression are associated with high levels of postnatal depression, and low levels of prenatal depression are associated with low levels of postnatal depression. But this does not mean the prenatal depression causes postnatal depression—they might both be caused by some third factor. In contrast, some factors, such as lack of social support, almost certainly cause postpartum depression. (The causal role of lack of social support in PPD is strongly suggested by several studies, including O'Hara 1985, Field et al. 1985; and Gotlib et al. 1991.) Anthropologists Kruckman and Stern tested the idea cross culturally, and their pioneering study determined six ways in which postpartum rituals, including the use of the postpartum ritual, la cuarentena, in Chicago Latina mothers, to protect or cushion the expression of mood disorders.
In addition to Beck’s meta-analysis cited above, other academic studies have shown a correlation between a mother’s race, social class
Social class
Social classes are economic or cultural arrangements of groups in society. Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, economists, anthropologists and social historians. In the social sciences, social class is often discussed in terms of 'social stratification'...
and/or sexual orientation
Sexual orientation
Sexual orientation describes a pattern of emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to the opposite sex, the same sex, both, or neither, and the genders that accompany them. By the convention of organized researchers, these attractions are subsumed under heterosexuality, homosexuality,...
and postpartum depression. In 2006 Segre et al., conducted a study "on the extent to which race/ethnicity is a risk factor" for PPD. Studying 26,877 postpartum women they found that 15.7% were depressed. Of the women suffering from PPD, 25.2% were African American, 22.9% were American Indian/Native Alaskan, 15.5% were Caucasian, 15.3% were Hispanic, and 11.5% were Asian/Pacific Islander. Even when "important social factors such as age, income, education, marital status, and baby’s health were controlled, African American women still emerged with significantly increased risk for…PPD".
Segre et al., also found a correlation between a mother’s social class
Social class
Social classes are economic or cultural arrangements of groups in society. Class is an essential object of analysis for sociologists, political scientists, economists, anthropologists and social historians. In the social sciences, social class is often discussed in terms of 'social stratification'...
and PPD. Not surprisingly, women with fewer resources indicate a higher level of postpartum depression and stress than those with more financial resources. Rates of PPD decreased as income increased as follows: Women with fewer resources are also more likely to have an unintended or unwanted pregnancy, further increasing risk of PPD. Beck (2001) concurs with this, stating that these women are at risk for PPD because they may experience stressors such as financial difficulties. Single mothers of low income may have fewer resources that they have access to while transitioning into motherhood.
| Income | PPD rate |
|---|---|
| <$10,000 | 24.3% |
| $10,000-$19,000 | 20.0% |
| $20,000-$29,000 | 18.8% |
| $30,000-$39,000 | 15.3% |
| $40,000-$49,000 | 13.7% |
| $50,000+ | 10.8% |
Likewise, a study conducted by Howell et al. in 2006 confirms Segre’s findings that women who are not Caucasian and in lower socioeconomic categories have more symptoms of PPD.
In a 2007 study conducted by Ross et al., lesbian and bisexual mothers were tested for PPD and then compared with a heterosexual sample. Ross et al. found that "lesbian and bisexual biological mothers had significantly higher Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) scores than the…sample of heterosexual women." The Ross study suggests that PPD may be more common among lesbian and bisexual mothers. From a study conducted in 2005 by Ross, the higher rates of PPD in lesbian/bisexual mothers than heterosexual mothers may be due to less "social support, particularly from their families of origin and…additional stress due to homophobic discrimination" in society.
Causes
The etiologyEtiology
Etiology is the study of causation, or origination. The word is derived from the Greek , aitiologia, "giving a reason for" ....
of PPD is not well understood.
It is sometimes assumed that postpartum depression is caused by a lack of vitamins. Other studies tend to show that more likely causes are the significant changes in a woman's hormones during pregnancy. Yet other studies have suggested there is no known correlation between hormones and postpartum mood disorders, and hormonal treatment has not helped postpartum depression victims.
Further, fathers, who are not undergoing profound hormonal changes, suffer PPD at relatively high rates (e.g., Goodman 2004). Finally, all mothers experience these hormonal changes, yet only about 10–15% suffer PPD. This does not mean, however, that hormones do not play a role in PPD. For example, in women with a history of PPD, a hormone treatment simulating pregnancy and parturition caused these women to suffer mood symptoms. The same treatment, however, did not cause mood symptoms in women with no history of PPD. One interpretation of these results is that there is a subgroup of women who are vulnerable to hormone changes during pregnancy. Another interpretation is that simulating a pregnancy will trigger PPD in women who are vulnerable to PPD for any of the reasons indicated by Beck's meta-analysis (summarized above).
Profound lifestyle changes brought about by caring for the infant
Infant
A newborn or baby is the very young offspring of a human or other mammal. A newborn is an infant who is within hours, days, or up to a few weeks from birth. In medical contexts, newborn or neonate refers to an infant in the first 28 days after birth...
are also frequently claimed to cause PPD, but, again, there is little evidence for this hypothesis. Mothers who have had several previous children without suffering PPD can nonetheless suffer it with their latest child (Nielsen Forman et al. 2000). Plus, most women experience profound lifestyle changes with their first pregnancy, yet most do not suffer PPD.
Sometimes a pre-existing mental illness
Mental illness
A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern generally associated with subjective distress or disability that occurs in an individual, and which is not a part of normal development or culture. Such a disorder may consist of a combination of affective, behavioural,...
can be brought to the forefront through PPD . It is widely found in women whose families have a history of mental illnesses and disorders such as bipolar disorder
Bipolar disorder
Bipolar disorder or bipolar affective disorder, historically known as manic–depressive disorder, is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a category of mood disorders defined by the presence of one or more episodes of abnormally elevated energy levels, cognition, and mood with or without one or...
, schizophrenia
Schizophrenia
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by a disintegration of thought processes and of emotional responsiveness. It most commonly manifests itself as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions, or disorganized speech and thinking, and it is accompanied by significant social...
and autism
Autism
Autism is a disorder of neural development characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. These signs all begin before a child is three years old. Autism affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their...
, and above-average rates of drug addiction and alcoholism.
In 2009, researchers at the University of California, Irvine
University of California, Irvine
The University of California, Irvine , founded in 1965, is one of the ten campuses of the University of California, located in Irvine, California, USA...
, reported that the levels of placental corticotropin-releasing hormone
Corticotropin-releasing hormone
Corticotropin-releasing hormone , originally named corticotropin-releasing factor , and also called corticoliberin, is a polypeptide hormone and neurotransmitter involved in the stress response...
(CRH) during the 25th week of pregnancy may help predict a woman's chances of developing postpartum depression.
Evolutionary psychological hypothesis
Research suggests that PPD is a functional component of human reproductive decision-making, research supports the notion that PPD declined mothers investment in their offspring (Hagen 1999). Human infants require an extraordinary degree of care. Lack of support and insufficient investment from fathers and/or other family member will increase the costs borne by mothers, whereas infant health problems will reduce the evolutionary benefits to be gained (Hagen 1999). If ancestral mothers did not receive enough support from fathers or other family members, they may not have been able to afford raising the new infant without harming any existing children, or damaging their own health (nursing depletes mothers' nutritional stores, placing the health of poorly nourished women in jeopardy).For mothers suffering inadequate social support or other costly and stressful circumstances, negative emotions directed towards a new infant could serve an important evolved function by causing the mother to reduce her investment in an unaffordable infant, thereby reducing her costs. Numerous studies support the correlation between postpartum depression and lack of social support or other childcare stressors (Beck 2001; Hagen 1999).
Kruckman, using observations from anthropological field work, suggests that supportive rituals and knowledge, if projected to the mother in a meaningful and sincere fashion, can affect the hypothalamus, pituitary and adrenal function and the production of endocrine signal molecules, and reduce the expression of anxiety or panic in postpartum women.
Mothers with postpartum depression can unconsciously exhibit fewer positive emotions and more negative emotions toward their children, are less responsive and less sensitive to infant cues, less emotionally available, have a less successful maternal role attainment, and have infants that are less securely attached; and in more extreme cases, some women may have thoughts of harming their children (Beck 1995, 1996b; Cohn et al. 1990, 1991; Field et al. 1985; Fowles 1996; Hoffman and Drotar 1991; Jennings et al. 1999; Murray 1991; Murray and Cooper 1996). In other words, most mothers with PPD are suffering some kind of cost, like inadequate social support, and consequently are mothering less.
In this view, mothers with PPD do not have a mental illness, but instead cannot afford to take care of the new infant without more social support, more resources, etc. Treatment should therefore focus on helping mothers get what they need. (See Hagen 1999 and Hagen and Barrett, n.d.)
Effects on the parent-infant relationship
Postpartum depression may lead mothers to be inconsistent with childcareChildcare
Child care means caring for and supervising child/children usually from 0–13 years of age. In the United States child care is increasingly referred to as early childhood education due to the understanding of the impact of early experiences of the developing child...
. Women diagnosed with postpartum depression often focus more on the negative events of childcare, resulting in poor coping strategies (Murray).
There are four groups of coping methods, each divided into a different style of coping subgroups. Avoidance coping
Avoidance coping
Avoidance coping, or escape coping, is a kind of generally maladaptive coping, characterized by the effort to escape from having to deal with a stressor.Post Traumatic Stress Disorder symptoms are thought to be the precursor to avoidance coping...
is one of the most common strategies used (Murray). It consists of denial and behavioral disengagement subgroups (for example, an avoidant mother might not respond to her baby crying). This strategy however, does not resolve any problems and ends up negatively impacting the mother’s mood, similarly of the other coping strategies used (Honey).
Four coping strategies:
- Avoidance coping: denial
DenialDenial is a defense mechanism postulated by Sigmund Freud, in which a person is faced with a fact that is too uncomfortable to accept and rejects it instead, insisting that it is not true despite what may be overwhelming evidence.The subject may use:* simple denial: deny the reality of the...
, behavioral disengagement- Problem-focused coping: active coping, planning, positive reframing
- Support seeking coping: emotional support, instrumental support
- Venting coping: venting, self-blame
Security
Mothers who resort to avoidance coping and so don’t respond to their infants' needs may make the infant feel insecure. According to Edhborg’s article on long-term impacts , insecurity can lead to infant stress and infant avoidance, where the infant may become so subdued that it will not interact with the mother or any other adult. This is a concern because months two through six in an infant’s life are very important; it is in these months that the infant develops some interaction and cognitive skills. Parent-infant interaction is most essential during this time because it builds the connection not only with the mother, but others as well. It is also the time of most risk for the child because of a possible increased onset of depression in the mother (Long-term). The lack of interaction can lead to difficulties in parent-infant communication and result in poorer infant performance (Murray). Multiple factors must be considered when evaluating the capacity of a seriously depressed mother to provide a safe-enough caregiving environment that can support the healthy development of her baby and her relationship with that baby Such factors, including maternal attachment history, present social supports, insight, and ability to accept help are often best considered by an indisciplinary professional treatment team that includes infant mental health specialists or other mental health practitioners with experience in working with children and families.Attachment study
A study by Edhborg on mother-child attachment looked at 45 randomly selected mother-child pairs. These pairs were chosen using the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) form, measuring postpartum depression in the community. 326 women returned the form and of the 326, 24 scoring above twelve were recruited and 21 women scoring less than nine were recruited. A score above twelve is considered "potentially depressed" and a score of less than nine is considered to have no form of depression. The 45 mother-child pairs were videotaped, in their homes, for five minutes in three different situations. Mother and child were first put in a room with a standard set of toys, to represent a control play. In the second situation, mother and child were allowed to play freely in an average toy room. In the third situation, the mother was asked to leave the room as if she had to check on something, like she would regularly do in their home environment, and then return.Senior Psychologists then scored the interaction between mother and child. The first two taped situations were scored on a five point scale; 1 (being the area of most concern) to 5 (being an area of strength). In the third situation, the attachment behavior was put into three groups based on how the child reacted to the mother's return.
Three classified groups:
- Secure and joyful attachment: consists of child greeting mother with joy and being comforted by her presence.
- Secure attachment but restricted in expressed enjoyment and pleasure: consists of the child acknowledging the mother, but showing less joy than would normally be expected.
- Insecure attachment: consists of child showing signs of avoidance and resistance. In the form of resistance the child would go to the mother, but then pull away and often repeat this action.
Analysis showed only one difference between the groups. In the free play situation, children of mothers with high EPDS scores showed less interest in playing with their mothers and exploring on their own, than the children of mothers with low EPDS scores. The mothers too only showed one difference. Those with a high EDPS score showed little maternal emotional availability to the child.
Following the results, Edhborg performed a cluster analysis, keeping interest on the different interaction styles. Some children did show signs of depression, but when comparing the children it was found that there is no significance with the EPDS scores and the interaction styles. The study did find, however, that children of high EPDS scorers were less involved in the free play situation than the children of low EPDS scorers, showing that children of high EPDS are more likely to be insecure.
When performing the structured task from the first situation it showed that the mothers with high EPDS were “aware of their unavailability for the child in the early postpartum period and thus tried harder… to help their children succeed in the task” (Edhborg). This overreaction proves that too much interaction can cause a negative mood in the child and a continuing difficulty in mother-child communication.
Attachment issues have been shown to be a problem in older children, also. As a result of being exposed to the depression symptoms, as an infant, older children may have impaired cognitive and socio-emotional developments. The lack of attachment can also cause troubles in the interaction with others and personal independence (Long-term). Children with these issues have a higher risk of being diagnosed with depression later in life as well (Honey).
John Bowlby's attachment theory explains how infants learn about their environment while keeping their caregiver close. Bowlby explains his theories with the principles of variety, heredity, and natural selection. Children need balance between the outside world and the love and support of their parents. Bowlby concentrates on a child's instinct and human nature, in opposition of Locke who believes that a newborn has no instinct to direct him or her. (Chasse, J.)
Prevention
Early identification and intervention improves long term prognoses for most women. Some success with preemptive treatment has been found as well. A major part of prevention is being informed about the risk factors, and the medical community can play a key role in identifying and treating postpartum depression. Women should be screened by their physician to determine their risk for acquiring postpartum depression. Also, proper exercise and nutrition appears to play a role in preventing postpartum, and general, depression.In the US, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommends that the first prenatal visit include screening for depression, stress, support, and whether the pregnancy was planned. However providers do not consistently provide screening and appropriate follow-up.
Currently, Alberta is the only province in Canada with universal PPD screening which has been in place since 2003. The PPD screening is carried out by Public Health nurses in conjunction with the baby's immunization schedule.
Nutrition
Pregnant, nursing and postpartum women are strongly encouraged to seek the medical advice of their obstetrician, primary care physicianPrimary care physician
A primary care physician, or PCP, is a physician/medical doctor who provides both the first contact for a person with an undiagnosed health concern as well as continuing care of varied medical conditions, not limited by cause, organ system, or diagnosis....
, registered dietitian, or midwife regarding optimal nutrition during pregnancy and after birth.
The following nutritional information may be beneficial in achieving a well-balanced diet during and after pregnancy, but studies are needed to confirm their role in preventing postpartum depression.
Omega-3 fatty acids: Some experts believe that postpartum depression can be attributed to depletion of omega 3 fatty acids from the mother's brain to support development of the brain of the fetus or breast fed infant. This can be prevented by ensuring that sufficient omega 3 fatty acids are provided in the mother's diet. Good natural sources of omega 3 fatty acids include edible linseed oil, certain fish, grass fed rather than grain fed meat, and eggs from chickens fed on flax seed or other feed high in omega 3 fats. Omega 3 fatty acids can also be purchased in capsule form as a dietary supplement.
Protein
Protein
Proteins are biochemical compounds consisting of one or more polypeptides typically folded into a globular or fibrous form, facilitating a biological function. A polypeptide is a single linear polymer chain of amino acids bonded together by peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of...
can be found in a wide variety of foods. Some examples follow: 3 ounces of most meat products contain 25 grams of protein, 3 large eggs have approximately 19 grams, and 3 ounces of Swiss cheese have about 15 grams.
Hydration: One of the most important roles in any diet (especially for pregnant and nursing mothers) is that of hydration. Physicians may recommend that pregnant women consume ten 8-ounce glasses of water every day. Mothers who are nursing are strongly urged to drink a tall glass of water, milk or juice before sitting down to breastfeed their child. Women should consult with their physicians about caffeine and alcohol consumption postpartum.
Vitamins: A pregnant and postpartum woman should speak with her physician for information about, and a recommendation for, a daily prenatal/postnatal vitamin
Vitamin
A vitamin is an organic compound required as a nutrient in tiny amounts by an organism. In other words, an organic chemical compound is called a vitamin when it cannot be synthesized in sufficient quantities by an organism, and must be obtained from the diet. Thus, the term is conditional both on...
supplement.
B Vitamins
B vitamins
B vitamins are a group of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism. The B vitamins were once thought to be a single vitamin, referred to as vitamin B . Later research showed that they are chemically distinct vitamins that often coexist in the same foods...
Some limited research has indicated that the intake of B vitamins, specifically riboflavin
Riboflavin
Riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2 or additive E101, is an easily absorbed micronutrient with a key role in maintaining health in humans and animals. It is the central component of the cofactors FAD and FMN, and is therefore required by all flavoproteins. As such, vitamin B2 is required for a...
, can help reduce the chance of post partum depression. B vitamins
B vitamins
B vitamins are a group of water-soluble vitamins that play important roles in cell metabolism. The B vitamins were once thought to be a single vitamin, referred to as vitamin B . Later research showed that they are chemically distinct vitamins that often coexist in the same foods...
are water soluble and must be replenished each day.
Appetite
Appetite
The appetite is the desire to eat food, felt as hunger. Appetite exists in all higher life-forms, and serves to regulate adequate energy intake to maintain metabolic needs. It is regulated by a close interplay between the digestive tract, adipose tissue and the brain. Decreased desire to eat is...
: If a woman finds herself with a loss of appetite
Appetite
The appetite is the desire to eat food, felt as hunger. Appetite exists in all higher life-forms, and serves to regulate adequate energy intake to maintain metabolic needs. It is regulated by a close interplay between the digestive tract, adipose tissue and the brain. Decreased desire to eat is...
or other eating disturbance, she should consult her physician. This may be a sign of postpartum depression and therefore should be discussed with a doctor.
Treatment
Numerous scientific studies and scholarly journal articles support the notion that postpartum depression is treatable using a variety of methods. If the cause of PPD can be identified, as described above under “social risk factors,” treatment should be aimed at mitigating the root cause of the problem, including increased partner support, additional help with childcare, cognitive therapy, etc.Women need to be taken seriously when symptoms occur. This is a twofold practice: First, the postpartum woman will want to trust her intuition about how she is feeling and believe that her symptoms are real enough to tell her significant other, a close friend, and/or her medical practitioner; erring on the side of caution will go a long way in the treatment of PPD. Second, the people in whom she confides must take her symptoms seriously as well, aiding her with treatment and support. Partners, friends and physicians may notice changes in a postpartum mother that she may not. Knowing that PPD is treatable with a variety of methods can make persistence in seeking treatment easier.
Various treatment options include:
- Medical evaluation to rule out physiological problems
- Cognitive behavioral therapy (a form of psychotherapyPsychotherapyPsychotherapy is a general term referring to any form of therapeutic interaction or treatment contracted between a trained professional and a client or patient; family, couple or group...
) - Possible medication
- Support groups
- Home visits/Home visitors
- Healthy diet
- Consistent/healthy sleep patterns
An experienced medical professional will work with a postpartum mother to develop a treatment plan that is right for her. This plan may include any combination of the above options, and might include some discussion or feedback from/with a partner. If a woman suffering from PPD does not feel she is being taken seriously or is being recommended a treatment plan she does not feel comfortable with, she will want to seek a second opinion.
A 1997 study conducted by Appleby et al., confirms that postpartum depressed mothers’ symptoms promptly improved at similar rates when treated with cognitive behavioral therapy or the antidepressant fluoxetine
Fluoxetine
Fluoxetine is an antidepressant of the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor class. It is manufactured and marketed by Eli Lilly and Company...
. “A group of 61 depressed mothers completed a 12-week treatment program with or without the antidepressant plus one session versus six sessions of counseling.” Improvement followed after “one to four weeks of either treatment.” The findings of Appleby et al.’s study conclusively showed that combining counseling with drug therapy did not add to the improvement of just drug therapy or just counseling. This suggests that counseling is equally as effective a treatment for PPD as medication, and that “the choice of treatment [psychotherapy vs. medication] may…be made by the women themselves”. Other forms of therapy (like group therapy and home visitors) are also effective treatments for PPD.
A woman will want to discuss the various treatment options available with her physician and, if considering drug therapy, should speak about which medications are safe to take while breastfeeding
Breastfeeding
Breastfeeding is the feeding of an infant or young child with breast milk directly from female human breasts rather than from a baby bottle or other container. Babies have a sucking reflex that enables them to suck and swallow milk. It is recommended that mothers breastfeed for six months or...
.
Treatment for PPD can reduce the length of suffering and its severity. Untreated, the Baby Blues may go away on its own (and does in most cases). PPD may or may not go away without treatment. Speaking to a health care provider as soon as symptoms occur is the safest way to ensure prompt treatment and return to normal life.
According to The National Institutes of Mental Health, studies show that the childbearing years are when a woman is most likely to experience depression in her lifetime. Approximately 15% of all women will experience postpartum depression following the birth of a child. (Chasse, J). When the mental health of the mother is compromised, it affects the entire family. (Postpartum Support International).
Psychosis
Postpartum psychosis is a separate mental illness, which involves a complete break with reality. Although sometimes confused with or erroneously referred to as postpartum depression, postpartum psychosis is a very different disorder. It is less common than PPD, and it involves the onset of psychotic symptoms that may include thought disturbances, delusions, hallucinations and/or disorganized speech or behavior.Treatment for Postnatal Psychosis is essential; it will not go away without medical attention.
Further reading
- Canadian Pediatric Society. "Depression in Pregnant Women and Mothers: How Children are Affected." October 2004. Accessed 22 November 2005 at
- O'Hara, M.W. Postpartum Depression: Causes and Consequences. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1995.
- Stone & Menken (2008) Perinatal and Postpartum Mood Disorders: Perspectives and Treatment Guide for the Healthcare Practitioner. New York: Springer.
External links
- The functions of postnatal depression
- Postnatal Depression, from the National Woman's Health Information Center
- Mother's Voice UK Charity supporting women and families affected by maternal depression/anxiety/psychosis
- Acacia Family Support UK charity supporting women and families affected by post natal depression
- Perinatal Pro – expert postpartum depression and perinatal mood disorder information
- Postpartum Depression, Postpartum Support International, an exhaustive resource for locating information and postpartum support groups worldwide
- Postnatal Depression, information from the mental health charity The Royal College of Psychiatrists
- NHS Choices Health A-Z: Postnatal depression
- NHS Choices Pregnancy Care Planner: The baby blues and postnatal depression
- NHS Choices Live Well: Postnatal depression
- PND -PMH Training Training in Postnatal Depression &Perinatal Mental Health Issues.
- Postpartum Depression Awareness Resources and Help.