Polyarchy
Encyclopedia
In modern political science, the term polyarchy (Greek
: poly many, arkhe rule) was introduced by Robert A. Dahl
, now emeritus professor
at Yale University
, to describe a form of government
in which power is vested in three or more persons. This form of government was first implemented in the United States and was gradually adopted by many other countries. According to Dahl, the fundamental democratic principle is that when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to be given equal consideration to their interests. A polyarchy is a nation-state that has certain procedures that are necessary conditions for following the democratic principle.
In semblance, the word polycracy
describes the same form of government, although from a slightly
different premise: A polycracy
is a state ruled by more than one person, as opposed to monarchy
. The word is derived from Greek -- poly
which means "many" and kratos
which means "rule" or "strength".
Dahl hypothesized that each of these condition can be quantified, and suggested using the term polyarchy to call an organization that scores high on the scales for all the eight conditions.
Dahl's Seven Sets of Conditions for Polyarchy are:
Moreover, perceived polyarchies -such as the United States- may bar a substantial number of its citizens from participating in its national electoral process. For example, more than four million U.S. citizens residing in the U.S. territories (such as Puerto Rico
, Guam
and the U.S. Virgin Islands) are excluded from participating in the election of any voting-member of Congress, which are the political bodies that hold ultimate sovereignty over them.
When, in the 1940s, Joseph Schumpeter
argued that ordinary citizens should limit their participation in a democracy to electing its leaders, he was effectively arguing for polyarchy. This contrasts with the view presented in the eighteenth century by Rousseau
, that the health of a polity depended on active citizen involvement in all aspects of governance. According to Schumpeter, massive political participation is regarded as undesirable and even dangerous. Schumpeter thought that the electoral masses are incapable of political participation other than voting for their leaders. He claimed most political issues are so remote from the daily lives of ordinary people, that they can not make sound judgements about opinions, policies and ideologies.
In Preface to Democratic Theory (1956) Dahl argues that an increase in citizen political involvement may not always be beneficial for polyarchy. An increase in the political participation of members of "lower" socioeconomic classes, for example, could reduce the support for the basic norms of polyarchy, because members of those classes are more pre-disposed to be authoritarian-minded.
In a discussion of contemporary British foreign policy, Mark Curtis
stated that "Polyarchy is generally what British leaders mean when they speak of promoting 'democracy' abroad. This is a system in which a small group actually rules and mass participation is confined to choosing leaders in elections managed by competing elites."
Greek language
Greek is an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. Its writing system has been the Greek alphabet for the majority of its history;...
: poly many, arkhe rule) was introduced by Robert A. Dahl
Robert A. Dahl
Robert Alan Dahl , is the Sterling Professor emeritus of political science at Yale University, where he earned his Ph.D. in political science in 1940. He is past president of the American Political Science Association...
, now emeritus professor
Professor
A professor is a scholarly teacher; the precise meaning of the term varies by country. Literally, professor derives from Latin as a "person who professes" being usually an expert in arts or sciences; a teacher of high rank...
at Yale University
Yale University
Yale University is a private, Ivy League university located in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1701 in the Colony of Connecticut, the university is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States...
, to describe a form of government
Form of government
A form of government, or form of state governance, refers to the set of political institutions by which a government of a state is organized. Synonyms include "regime type" and "system of government".-Empirical and conceptual problems:...
in which power is vested in three or more persons. This form of government was first implemented in the United States and was gradually adopted by many other countries. According to Dahl, the fundamental democratic principle is that when it comes to binding collective decisions, each person in a political community is entitled to be given equal consideration to their interests. A polyarchy is a nation-state that has certain procedures that are necessary conditions for following the democratic principle.
In semblance, the word polycracy
Polycracy
A polycracy is a state ruled by more than one person, as opposed to monocracy. The word is derived from Greek -- poly which means "many" and kratos which means "rule" or "strength". It is also known as polyarchy. Many seemingly autocratic states are merely a facade of polycratic societies...
describes the same form of government, although from a slightly
different premise: A polycracy
Polycracy
A polycracy is a state ruled by more than one person, as opposed to monocracy. The word is derived from Greek -- poly which means "many" and kratos which means "rule" or "strength". It is also known as polyarchy. Many seemingly autocratic states are merely a facade of polycratic societies...
is a state ruled by more than one person, as opposed to monarchy
Monarchy
A monarchy is a form of government in which the office of head of state is usually held until death or abdication and is often hereditary and includes a royal house. In some cases, the monarch is elected...
. The word is derived from Greek -- poly
Poly
Poly can have multiple meanings:* As a prefix, often meaning more than one or many * As a feminine given name...
which means "many" and kratos
Kratos
Kratos may refer to:*The Greek word κράτος krátos, 'power', which is the second root in words like aristocrat and democracy. Its mythological personification was the god Kratos, a son of Styx.*Kratos MS 50, a tool for Electron ionization...
which means "rule" or "strength".
Definitions
Dahl's original theory of polyarchal democracy is in his 1956 book, A Preface to Democratic Theory. His theory evolved over the decades, and the description in later writings is somewhat different.A Preface to Democratic Theory
In this book, Dahl gives eight conditions, which measure the extent to which majority rule is in effect in an organization. These are (p. 84):- Every member of the organization performs the acts we assume to constitute an expression of preference among the scheduled alternatives, e.g., voting.
- In tabulating these expressions (votes), the weight assigned to each individual is identical.
- The alternative with the greatest number of votes is declared the winning choice.
- Any member who perceives a set of alternatives, at least one of which he regards as preferable to any of the alternatives presently scheduled, can insert his preferred alternative(s) among those scheduled for voting.
- All individuals possess identical information about the alternatives.
- Alternatives (leaders or policies) with the greatest number of votes displace any alternatives (leaders or policies) with fewer votes.
- The orders of elected officials are executed.
- Either all interelection decisions are subordinate or executory to those arrived at during the election stage, i.e, elections are in a sense controlling; or new decisions during the interelection period are governed by the preceding seven conditions, operating, however, under rather different institutional circumstances; or both.
Dahl hypothesized that each of these condition can be quantified, and suggested using the term polyarchy to call an organization that scores high on the scales for all the eight conditions.
Democracy and its critics
In his 1989 book, Democracy and its critics, Dahl gives the following characteristics of a polyarchy (p. 233):- Control over governmental decisions about policy is constitutionally vested in elected officials.
- Elected officials are chosen and peacefully removed in relatively frequent, fair and free elections in which coercion is quite limited.
- Practically all adults have the right to vote in these elections.
- Most adults also have the right to run for the public offices for which candidates run in these elections.
- Citizens have an effectively enforced right to freedom of expression, particularly political expression, including criticism of the officials, the conduct of the government, the prevailing political, economic, and social system, and the dominant ideology.
- They also have access to alternative sources of information that are not monopolized by the government or any other single group.
- Finally, they have an effectively enforced right to form and join autonomous associations, including political associations, such as political parties and interest groups, that attempt to influence the government by competing in elections and by other peaceful means.
Dahl's Seven Sets of Conditions for Polyarchy are:
- Historical Sequence- peaceful evolution within an independent nation-state
- Socioeconomic Order-concentration- a competitive regime cannot be maintained in a country where military forces are accustomed to intervening
- Socioeconomic Order-level of development
- Provide literacy, education, communication
- Create a pluralistic social order
- Prevent Inequalities
- Equalities and Inequalities
- Hegemonic regimes reduce public contestation
- Inequalities increase the chance comparative politics will displace hegemony
- Subcultures, Cleavage Patterns and, Governmental Effectiveness
- The Beliefs of Political Activists- treat them as major independent variables
- Foreign Control- foreign domination can affect all the conditions and alter available options
Characteristics
Polyarchy and its procedures by itself may be insufficient for achieving full democracy. For example, poor people may be unable to participate in the political process.http://web.mit.edu/polisci/research/cohen/dahl_on_democracy.pdfMoreover, perceived polyarchies -such as the United States- may bar a substantial number of its citizens from participating in its national electoral process. For example, more than four million U.S. citizens residing in the U.S. territories (such as Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico , officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico , is an unincorporated territory of the United States, located in the northeastern Caribbean, east of the Dominican Republic and west of both the United States Virgin Islands and the British Virgin Islands.Puerto Rico comprises an...
, Guam
Guam
Guam is an organized, unincorporated territory of the United States located in the western Pacific Ocean. It is one of five U.S. territories with an established civilian government. Guam is listed as one of 16 Non-Self-Governing Territories by the Special Committee on Decolonization of the United...
and the U.S. Virgin Islands) are excluded from participating in the election of any voting-member of Congress, which are the political bodies that hold ultimate sovereignty over them.
When, in the 1940s, Joseph Schumpeter
Joseph Schumpeter
Joseph Alois Schumpeter was an Austrian-Hungarian-American economist and political scientist. He popularized the term "creative destruction" in economics.-Life:...
argued that ordinary citizens should limit their participation in a democracy to electing its leaders, he was effectively arguing for polyarchy. This contrasts with the view presented in the eighteenth century by Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of 18th-century Romanticism. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological and educational thought.His novel Émile: or, On Education is a treatise...
, that the health of a polity depended on active citizen involvement in all aspects of governance. According to Schumpeter, massive political participation is regarded as undesirable and even dangerous. Schumpeter thought that the electoral masses are incapable of political participation other than voting for their leaders. He claimed most political issues are so remote from the daily lives of ordinary people, that they can not make sound judgements about opinions, policies and ideologies.
In Preface to Democratic Theory (1956) Dahl argues that an increase in citizen political involvement may not always be beneficial for polyarchy. An increase in the political participation of members of "lower" socioeconomic classes, for example, could reduce the support for the basic norms of polyarchy, because members of those classes are more pre-disposed to be authoritarian-minded.
In a discussion of contemporary British foreign policy, Mark Curtis
Mark Curtis (British author)
Mark Curtis is a British journalist, writer, and historian specialising in investigative journalism. He has written numerous books on the foreign policy of the United Kingdom and the United States during the twentieth century.-Biography:...
stated that "Polyarchy is generally what British leaders mean when they speak of promoting 'democracy' abroad. This is a system in which a small group actually rules and mass participation is confined to choosing leaders in elections managed by competing elites."
External links
- "Politicians Sweep Midterm Elections" a spoofParodyA parody , in current usage, is an imitative work created to mock, comment on, or trivialise an original work, its subject, author, style, or some other target, by means of humorous, satiric or ironic imitation...
news article from The OnionThe OnionThe Onion is an American news satire organization. It is an entertainment newspaper and a website featuring satirical articles reporting on international, national, and local news, in addition to a non-satirical entertainment section known as The A.V. Club...
elucidating the limited nature of the electoral process in a polyarchy. - Polyarchy: a manifesto Polyarchy as empowerment of free individuals and voluntary communities.
Citations
- Robert A. DahlRobert A. DahlRobert Alan Dahl , is the Sterling Professor emeritus of political science at Yale University, where he earned his Ph.D. in political science in 1940. He is past president of the American Political Science Association...
. 1956. A Preface to Democratic Theory. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-13425-3 (paper). - Robert A. DahlRobert A. DahlRobert Alan Dahl , is the Sterling Professor emeritus of political science at Yale University, where he earned his Ph.D. in political science in 1940. He is past president of the American Political Science Association...
. 1972. Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition. Yale University Press . ISBN 0-300-01565-8 (paper). - Seyom Brown. 1988. New Forces, Old Forces, and the Future of World Politics. Glenview, Il.: Scott Foresman.
- Charles BlattbergCharles BlattbergCharles Blattberg is a professor of political philosophy at the Université de Montréal. Blattberg grew up in Toronto and completed his undergraduate degree at the University of Toronto, where he also served as president of its Students’ Administrative Council during the 1989–90 academic...
. 2003. Shall We Dance? A Patriotic Politics for Canada. Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queens's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-2547-5 (cloth); ISBN 0-7735-2596-3 (paper). - James N. RosenauJames N. RosenauJames N. Rosenau was an American political scientist and international affairs scholar. He served as President of the International Studies Association from 1984 to 1985.-Life:...
& Ernst-Otto Czempiel. 1992. Governance without Government: Order and Change in World Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. - Robinson, William I., Promoting Polyarchy.