Political groups during Vladimir Putin's presidency
Encyclopedia
A diverse variety of informal political groups emerged during the presidency of Vladimir Putin
. They include remnants of the so-called the Yeltsin Family, Sankt Petersburg lawyers and -economists, and security-intelligence elements called the siloviki.
and Leningrad Oblast
KGB
Directorate and former Chief of the Committee for External Relations of Saint Petersburg Mayor's Office
, had come to the presidency in 2000, many political observers noticed quick career promotion of bureaucracy and businesspeople from Saint Petersburg
to the federal power bodies (especially the Presidential Executive Office, a very influential institution that has always been totally controlled by the presidential authority) and large state-controlled companies (such as Gazprom
and Rosneft
) and their struggle against old Moscow elites loyal to Boris Yeltsin
's family, known as Family group, as well as against influential media tycoon Boris Berezovsky and his allies, who helped Putin on his way to power in 1999 - 2000.
According to Associate Professor of Political Science John P. Willerton, it is difficult to make general judgements about the various informal groups, their backgrounds and political preferences.
in the United States
, reformist St Petersburg economists and lawyers constitute a prominent group in the Putin team. Many of them have career and personal ties to Putin dating back to the early 1990s.
Many of the members of the economic reform team, both in the presidential administration and the government, are drawn from the St Petersburg group. They are academically qualified and have significant administrative experience, are often focused on the technical complexities of the country's system transformation. They are - in general - committed to market development, privatization and the continued diminution of the state's role in the country's socioeconomic life. The liberal economists contend that the consolidation of democracy comes with improving the population's standard of living and developing the private sector. Prominent St Petersburg economists include Alexei Kudrin
, German Gref
and Putin's economic adviser Andrei Illarionov.
The St Petersburg lawyers focus on constitutional-legal-administrative arrangements to bolster and efficient democratic system, favouring reforms that strengthen simultaneously the market economy and political stability. Prominent members included the former presidential administration head Dmitry Medvedev
and Dmitry Kozak
.
and Samuel Charap, at the start of his presidency, Vladimir Putin
announced that he would consolidate political powers in Russia
into the so-called power vertical. However, despite being considered successful by many, this controversial endeavour partially backfired and led to the increasing factionalism within the president's inner circle. Although other institutions now became largely irrelevant, disputes and clashes between Kremlin factions, rather than the president's will, are getting more and more important in determining major policy outcomes, Bremmer and Charap write.
's presidency, Alexander Voloshin
, chief of the Presidential Executive Office, was considered to be the most influential figure within the Family group, somewhat shady though, dominating Russia's politics of that time http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/7184-19.cfm
http://vesti.lenta.ru/daynews/2000/03/29/20government/
http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/7167-13.cfm.
In 1999 the Family group, Vladimir Putin, Boris Berezovsky and their allies united their efforts in order to prevent coming to power of the Fatherland-All Russia political alliance of former Prime Minister Yevgeny Primakov
and Moscow
Mayor Yury Luzhkov that was supported by media tycoon Vladimir Gusinsky
and to some extent by the public opinion. The efforts were successful, but as soon as Putin had won the 2000 presidential election
, an acute conflict with Boris Berezovsky developed, and in 2002 Berezovsky fled to London. As a result, Russian authorities consolidated their power over Russian TV companies NTV
and ORT
previously controlled by Vladimir Gusinsky and Boris Berezovsky, respectively. http://lenta.ru/articles/2005/06/10/intrigues/
http://www.lib.ru/HISTORY/FELSHTINSKY/naslednik.txt
http://www.smi.ru/text/01/12/10/34788.htm
The Family group has also almost entirely lost its influence by 2004 after the dismissals of Alexander Voloshin (October 2003), Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov
(February 2004) and some key figures of his Cabinet
, but some of the group's members secured their political survival. Vladislav Surkov
, initially being an aide to Voloshin, gained much influence, as well as Prosecutor General Vladimir Ustinov
, who had leaned towards new Saint Petersburg elites and whose son had become Igor Sechin
's son-in-law
. Tycoon Roman Abramovich
, who had leaned towards the Family group in the 1990s, also remained influential, as well as former Mass Media Minister Mikhail Lesin
. Each of them, however, had already distanced away from the Family group by that time.
As the Family group had lost its influence, especially during Vladimir Putin's second four-year presidential term (since May 7, 2004), some conflicts between parts of the new elites of Saint Petersburg origin became evident, as witnessed e.g. by the disputes over the fate of YUKOS
, failed project of merging Rosneft
and Gazprom
, struggle for Sibneft and upcoming 2008 presidential election
, some appointments and dismissals in Mikhail Fradkov's Second Cabinet
and consequences of the Three Whales Corruption Scandal
, but the exact configuration of these new groups still remains unclear. However, it is widely acknowledged that Igor Sechin
and Dmitry Medvedev
are key figures heading their own factions and opposed to each other but both very close to Putin. Former Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov
is considered close ally of Sechin. (http://www.stringer-news.ru/publication.mhtml?Part=50&PubID=6733 http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_12/b3925073_mz054.htm http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/9069-15.cfm http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/9185-10.cfm http://www.deloros.ru/news/smi/2005/06/24/smi_945.html?template=24 http://2006.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2006/94n/n94n-s01.shtml
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8f7e778a-8c51-11d9-a895-00000e2511c8.html http://www.ruscourier.ru/archive/1286
http://www.anticompromat.ru/putin/5bashen.html
http://www.deloros.ru/news/smi/2005/06/24/smi_945.html?template=24
http://www.apn.ru/news/article11530.htm
http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/politic/48964/
http://echo.msk.ru/programs/politic/49642/index.phtml
http://www.guardian.co.uk/russia/article/0,2763,1642664,00.html
http://www.kommersant.com/page.asp?id=588623
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/c7b00acc-95c2-11d9-bc72-00000e2511c8.html
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/4b7fe604-c6da-11d9-a700-00000e2511c8.html
http://www.kommersant.com/page.asp?id=735542
http://www.kommersant.com/p511585/r_1/Damage_Control/
http://www.kommersant.com/page.asp?id=583190
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/02/AR2006060200816.html?referrer=delicious
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/15/AR2007021501526_pf.html
http://www.echo.msk.ru/guests/11527/
http://echo.msk.ru/programs/albac/43920/)
Vladimir Putin
Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin served as the second President of the Russian Federation and is the current Prime Minister of Russia, as well as chairman of United Russia and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Union of Russia and Belarus. He became acting President on 31 December 1999, when...
. They include remnants of the so-called the Yeltsin Family, Sankt Petersburg lawyers and -economists, and security-intelligence elements called the siloviki.
Background
When Putin came to power, he had few protégés or long-term associates, and had to balance various competitive elements as he crafted his team. In contrast to the Yeltsin years, Putin's regime was marked by personnel stability, a gradual elevation of trusted associates and coalition-building across competing interests both within the presidential administration and with other political actors.Overview
As President Vladimir Putin, former employee of the LeningradLeningrad
Leningrad is the former name of Saint Petersburg, Russia.Leningrad may also refer to:- Places :* Leningrad Oblast, a federal subject of Russia, around Saint Petersburg* Leningrad, Tajikistan, capital of Muminobod district in Khatlon Province...
and Leningrad Oblast
Leningrad Oblast
Leningrad Oblast is a federal subject of Russia . It was established on August 1, 1927, although it was not until 1946 that the oblast's borders had been mostly settled in their present position...
KGB
KGB
The KGB was the commonly used acronym for the . It was the national security agency of the Soviet Union from 1954 until 1991, and was the premier internal security, intelligence, and secret police organization during that time.The State Security Agency of the Republic of Belarus currently uses the...
Directorate and former Chief of the Committee for External Relations of Saint Petersburg Mayor's Office
Saint Petersburg City Administration
Saint Petersburg City Administration is the superior executive body of Saint Petersburg , Russian Federation. It is located in a historic building, Smolny....
, had come to the presidency in 2000, many political observers noticed quick career promotion of bureaucracy and businesspeople from Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea...
to the federal power bodies (especially the Presidential Executive Office, a very influential institution that has always been totally controlled by the presidential authority) and large state-controlled companies (such as Gazprom
Gazprom
Open Joint Stock Company Gazprom is the largest extractor of natural gas in the world and the largest Russian company. Its headquarters are in Cheryomushki District, South-Western Administrative Okrug, Moscow...
and Rosneft
Rosneft
Rosneft is an integrated oil company majority owned by the Government of Russia. Rosneft is headquartered in Moscow’s Balchug district near the Kremlin, across the Moskva river...
) and their struggle against old Moscow elites loyal to Boris Yeltsin
Boris Yeltsin
Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999.Originally a supporter of Mikhail Gorbachev, Yeltsin emerged under the perestroika reforms as one of Gorbachev's most powerful political opponents. On 29 May 1990 he was elected the chairman of...
's family, known as Family group, as well as against influential media tycoon Boris Berezovsky and his allies, who helped Putin on his way to power in 1999 - 2000.
According to Associate Professor of Political Science John P. Willerton, it is difficult to make general judgements about the various informal groups, their backgrounds and political preferences.
Major Groups
St. Petersburg economists and lawyers
According to Associate Professor of Political Science John P. Willerton of the University of ArizonaUniversity of Arizona
The University of Arizona is a land-grant and space-grant public institution of higher education and research located in Tucson, Arizona, United States. The University of Arizona was the first university in the state of Arizona, founded in 1885...
in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, reformist St Petersburg economists and lawyers constitute a prominent group in the Putin team. Many of them have career and personal ties to Putin dating back to the early 1990s.
Many of the members of the economic reform team, both in the presidential administration and the government, are drawn from the St Petersburg group. They are academically qualified and have significant administrative experience, are often focused on the technical complexities of the country's system transformation. They are - in general - committed to market development, privatization and the continued diminution of the state's role in the country's socioeconomic life. The liberal economists contend that the consolidation of democracy comes with improving the population's standard of living and developing the private sector. Prominent St Petersburg economists include Alexei Kudrin
Alexei Kudrin
Alexei Leonidovich Kudrin was the Minister of Finance and Deputy Prime Minister of Russia from 18 May 2000 to 26 September 2011. After graduating with degrees in finance and economics, Kudrin worked in the administration of Saint Petersburg's liberal Mayor Anatoly Sobchak. In 1996 he started...
, German Gref
German Gref
German Oskarovich Gref , born February 8, 1964) is a Russian economist of German ethnicity, the founder of Center of the Strategic Development. He was the Minister of Economics and Trade of Russia from May 2000 to September 2007...
and Putin's economic adviser Andrei Illarionov.
The St Petersburg lawyers focus on constitutional-legal-administrative arrangements to bolster and efficient democratic system, favouring reforms that strengthen simultaneously the market economy and political stability. Prominent members included the former presidential administration head Dmitry Medvedev
Dmitry Medvedev
Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev is the third President of the Russian Federation.Born to a family of academics, Medvedev graduated from the Law Department of Leningrad State University in 1987. He defended his dissertation in 1990 and worked as a docent at his alma mater, now renamed to Saint...
and Dmitry Kozak
Dmitry Kozak
Dmitry Nikolayevich Kozak , is a Russian politician, serving since October 2008 as deputy Prime minister of the Russian Federation....
.
Siloviki
Much foreign attention has been given to the security-intelligence elements, what Russians refer to as the siloviki. They began coming to power under Yeltsin, but this accelerated during Putin's premiership and presidency. A common view in Russia is that these siloviki are generally non-ideological, are not corrupt, have a pragmatic law and order focus and have Russian national interests at heart. They do not form a cohesive group.Remnants of the Yeltsin family
Another identifiable group are the remnants of the so-called "Family" - a term which originally referred to relatives and associates of the former president Yeltsin. Most senior members of the group have left the highest corridors of power, but some have been able to survive and secure influential positions.Outside opinion
According to a The Washington Quarterly article by Ian BremmerIan Bremmer
Ian Bremmer is an American political scientist specializing in US foreign policy, states in transition, and global political risk. He is the president and founder of Eurasia Group, a leading global political risk research and consulting firm...
and Samuel Charap, at the start of his presidency, Vladimir Putin
Vladimir Putin
Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin served as the second President of the Russian Federation and is the current Prime Minister of Russia, as well as chairman of United Russia and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Union of Russia and Belarus. He became acting President on 31 December 1999, when...
announced that he would consolidate political powers in Russia
Russia
Russia or , officially known as both Russia and the Russian Federation , is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects...
into the so-called power vertical. However, despite being considered successful by many, this controversial endeavour partially backfired and led to the increasing factionalism within the president's inner circle. Although other institutions now became largely irrelevant, disputes and clashes between Kremlin factions, rather than the president's will, are getting more and more important in determining major policy outcomes, Bremmer and Charap write.
History
During the final years of Boris YeltsinBoris Yeltsin
Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999.Originally a supporter of Mikhail Gorbachev, Yeltsin emerged under the perestroika reforms as one of Gorbachev's most powerful political opponents. On 29 May 1990 he was elected the chairman of...
's presidency, Alexander Voloshin
Alexander Voloshin
Alexander Staliyevich Voloshin is a Russian politician who briefly was chairman of the Board of Directors of RAO UES, the former Russian state power utility, which was liquidated as part of the country's comprehensive power sector reforms on 1 July 2008.In 1997, he was appointed as an assistant...
, chief of the Presidential Executive Office, was considered to be the most influential figure within the Family group, somewhat shady though, dominating Russia's politics of that time http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/7184-19.cfm
http://vesti.lenta.ru/daynews/2000/03/29/20government/
http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/7167-13.cfm.
In 1999 the Family group, Vladimir Putin, Boris Berezovsky and their allies united their efforts in order to prevent coming to power of the Fatherland-All Russia political alliance of former Prime Minister Yevgeny Primakov
Yevgeny Primakov
Yevgeny Maksimovich Primakov is a Russian politician and diplomat. During his long career, he served as the Russian Foreign Minister, Prime Minister of Russia, Speaker of the Soviet of the Union of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, and chief of intelligence service...
and Moscow
Moscow
Moscow is the capital, the most populous city, and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural, scientific, religious, financial, educational, and transportation centre of Russia and the continent...
Mayor Yury Luzhkov that was supported by media tycoon Vladimir Gusinsky
Vladimir Gusinsky
Vladimir Aleksandrovich Gusinsky is a Russian media baron, is known as the founder of Media-Most holding that included Most Bank, the NTV channel, the newspaper Segodnya and magazines.-Life and career:Gusinsky was born in Moscow....
and to some extent by the public opinion. The efforts were successful, but as soon as Putin had won the 2000 presidential election
Russian presidential election, 2000
Russian presidential elections were held on 26 March 2000. Incumbent Prime Minister, and acting President Vladimir Putin, who had succeeded Boris Yeltsin on his resignation December 31, 1999, was seeking a four-year term in his own right and won the elections in the first round. Polling stations...
, an acute conflict with Boris Berezovsky developed, and in 2002 Berezovsky fled to London. As a result, Russian authorities consolidated their power over Russian TV companies NTV
NTV Russia
NTV is a Russian television channel. As a subsidiary of Vladimir Gusinsky's company Media-Most, it was a pioneer in the post-Soviet independent television media, but was later taken over by state-owned Gazprom.- History :...
and ORT
Channel One (Russia)
Channel One is the first television channel to broadcast in the Soviet Union. The channel was renamed Ostankino Channel 1 in 1991, after the Soviet Union broke up and the Russian SFSR became the Russian Federation. According to a recent government publication, the Russian government controls 51%...
previously controlled by Vladimir Gusinsky and Boris Berezovsky, respectively. http://lenta.ru/articles/2005/06/10/intrigues/
http://www.lib.ru/HISTORY/FELSHTINSKY/naslednik.txt
http://www.smi.ru/text/01/12/10/34788.htm
The Family group has also almost entirely lost its influence by 2004 after the dismissals of Alexander Voloshin (October 2003), Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov
Mikhail Kasyanov
Mikhail Mikhailovich Kasyanov - was the Prime Minister of Russia from May 2000 to February 2004.He is the leader of the People's Democratic Union and an ex-member of the opposition coalition "The Other Russia".-Political career:...
(February 2004) and some key figures of his Cabinet
Mikhail Kasyanov's Cabinet
Mikhail Kasyanov's Cabinet was a cabinet of the government of the Russian Federation during most of Vladimir Putin's first presidential term. It followed Vladimir Putin's Cabinet after Vladimir Putin became President of Russia and was replaced with Mikhail Fradkov's First Cabinet shortly before...
, but some of the group's members secured their political survival. Vladislav Surkov
Vladislav Surkov
Vladislav Yuryevich Surkov is a Russian businessman and politician. Currently he is a First Deputy Chief of Staff of the President of the Russian Federation and a top aide to Vladimir Putin. Vladislav Surkov is widely seen as the main ideologist of the Kremlin...
, initially being an aide to Voloshin, gained much influence, as well as Prosecutor General Vladimir Ustinov
Vladimir Ustinov
Vladimir Vasilyevich Ustinov is a Russian politician.He currently is the Plenipotentiary Envoy to the Southern Federal District. Until 2008, he was Russia's Minister of Justice....
, who had leaned towards new Saint Petersburg elites and whose son had become Igor Sechin
Igor Sechin
Igor Ivanovich Sechin is a Russian official, considered a close ally of Vladimir Putin. Sechin is often described as one of Putin's most conservative counselors and the leader of the Kremlin's Siloviki faction, a statist lobby gathering former security services agents...
's son-in-law
Son-in-Law
Son-in-Law was a British Thoroughbred racehorse and an influential sire, especially for sport horses.The National Horseracing Museum says that Son-in-Law is "probably the best and most distinguished stayer this country has ever known." Described as "one of the principal influences for stamina in...
. Tycoon Roman Abramovich
Roman Abramovich
Roman Arkadyevich Abramovich is a Russian businessman and the main owner of the private investment company Millhouse LLC.In 2003, Abramovich was named Person of the Year by Expert, a Russian business magazine. He shared this title with Mikhail Khodorkovsky...
, who had leaned towards the Family group in the 1990s, also remained influential, as well as former Mass Media Minister Mikhail Lesin
Mikhail Lesin
Mikhail Yuriyevich Lesin is a Russian political figure, and currently an adviser to the Russian president. Lesin is credited as the creator of the RT television news network "to establish a news channel that would counter CNN and BBC -- with a Moscow spin"...
. Each of them, however, had already distanced away from the Family group by that time.
As the Family group had lost its influence, especially during Vladimir Putin's second four-year presidential term (since May 7, 2004), some conflicts between parts of the new elites of Saint Petersburg origin became evident, as witnessed e.g. by the disputes over the fate of YUKOS
YUKOS
OJSC "Yukos Oil Company" was a petroleum company in Russia which, until 2003, was controlled by Russian oligarch Mikhail Khodorkovsky and a number of other prominent Russian businessmen. After Yukos was bankrupted, Khodorkovsky was convicted and sent to prison.Yukos headquarters was located in...
, failed project of merging Rosneft
Rosneft
Rosneft is an integrated oil company majority owned by the Government of Russia. Rosneft is headquartered in Moscow’s Balchug district near the Kremlin, across the Moskva river...
and Gazprom
Gazprom
Open Joint Stock Company Gazprom is the largest extractor of natural gas in the world and the largest Russian company. Its headquarters are in Cheryomushki District, South-Western Administrative Okrug, Moscow...
, struggle for Sibneft and upcoming 2008 presidential election
Russian presidential election, 2008
The Russian Presidential election of 2008, held on March 2, 2008 resulted in the election of Dmitry Medvedev as the third President of Russia. Medvedev, whose candidacy was supported by incumbent president Vladimir Putin and five political parties , received 71% of the vote, and defeated...
, some appointments and dismissals in Mikhail Fradkov's Second Cabinet
Mikhail Fradkov's Second Cabinet
Mikhail Fradkov's Second Cabinet was the twelfth cabinet of the government of the Russian Federation, preceded by Mikhail Fradkov's First Cabinet, which followed the cabinet led by Mikhail Kasyanov, who had been dismissed by President Vladimir Putin on February 24, 2004 shortly before the...
and consequences of the Three Whales Corruption Scandal
Three Whales Corruption Scandal
The Three Whales Corruption Scandal is a major corruption scandal in Russia involving several furniture companies and federal government bodies which has unfolded since 2000.-2000 smuggling investigation :...
, but the exact configuration of these new groups still remains unclear. However, it is widely acknowledged that Igor Sechin
Igor Sechin
Igor Ivanovich Sechin is a Russian official, considered a close ally of Vladimir Putin. Sechin is often described as one of Putin's most conservative counselors and the leader of the Kremlin's Siloviki faction, a statist lobby gathering former security services agents...
and Dmitry Medvedev
Dmitry Medvedev
Dmitry Anatolyevich Medvedev is the third President of the Russian Federation.Born to a family of academics, Medvedev graduated from the Law Department of Leningrad State University in 1987. He defended his dissertation in 1990 and worked as a docent at his alma mater, now renamed to Saint...
are key figures heading their own factions and opposed to each other but both very close to Putin. Former Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov
Mikhail Fradkov
Mikhail Yefimovich Fradkov is a Russian politician and statesman who was the Prime Minister of Russia from March 2004 to September 2007. Fradkov has been the head of Russia's Foreign Intelligence Service since 2007.-Early life:...
is considered close ally of Sechin. (http://www.stringer-news.ru/publication.mhtml?Part=50&PubID=6733 http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/05_12/b3925073_mz054.htm http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/9069-15.cfm http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/9185-10.cfm http://www.deloros.ru/news/smi/2005/06/24/smi_945.html?template=24 http://2006.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2006/94n/n94n-s01.shtml
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/8f7e778a-8c51-11d9-a895-00000e2511c8.html http://www.ruscourier.ru/archive/1286
http://www.anticompromat.ru/putin/5bashen.html
http://www.deloros.ru/news/smi/2005/06/24/smi_945.html?template=24
http://www.apn.ru/news/article11530.htm
http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/politic/48964/
http://echo.msk.ru/programs/politic/49642/index.phtml
http://www.guardian.co.uk/russia/article/0,2763,1642664,00.html
http://www.kommersant.com/page.asp?id=588623
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/c7b00acc-95c2-11d9-bc72-00000e2511c8.html
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/4b7fe604-c6da-11d9-a700-00000e2511c8.html
http://www.kommersant.com/page.asp?id=735542
http://www.kommersant.com/p511585/r_1/Damage_Control/
http://www.kommersant.com/page.asp?id=583190
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/02/AR2006060200816.html?referrer=delicious
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/15/AR2007021501526_pf.html
http://www.echo.msk.ru/guests/11527/
http://echo.msk.ru/programs/albac/43920/)
External links
- The Siloviki in Putin’s Russia: Who They Are and What They Want by Ian BremmerIan BremmerIan Bremmer is an American political scientist specializing in US foreign policy, states in transition, and global political risk. He is the president and founder of Eurasia Group, a leading global political risk research and consulting firm...
and Samuel Charap, The Washington Quarterly 30.1 (2006–2007). - Происхождение путинской олигархии (Origins of Putin's oligarchy) by Vladimir PribylovskyVladimir PribylovskyVladimir Valerianovich Pribylovsky is a Russian historian, journalist and human rights advocate opposed to current Russian authorities.-Biography:...
(2005).