Plural society
Encyclopedia
A plural society is defined by Fredrik Barth
as a society
combining ethnic contrasts: the economic
interdependence of those groups, and the ecological
specialization (i.e., use of different environmental resources by each ethnic group). The ecological interdependence, or the lack of competition, between ethnic groups may be based on the different activities in the same region or on long–term occupation of different regions in the same nation–state. In Barth’s view, ethnic boundaries are most enduring and stable when groups occupy different ecological niches; simply, they make their living in different ways and don’t compete. When different ethnic groups exploit the same ecological niche, the militarily
more powerful group will normally replace the weaker one. However, if the weaker group is better able to use marginal environments, the two groups could also coexist. Ethnic boundaries, distinctions, and interdependence can be maintained given niche specialization, although specific cultural features of each group may change.
Defined by J S Furnivall as a medley of people
s - European
, Chinese, Indian
and native, who do mix but do not combine. Each group holds by its own religion
, its own culture
and language
, its own idea
s and ways. As individuals they meet, but only in the marketplace
in buy
ing and sell
ing. There is a plural society, with different sections of the community
living side by side, within the same political
unit.
Arend Lijphart, therefore, used particular form of democracy, “Consociational Democracy”, which is, according to him, may be difficult but it is not at all impossible to achieve and maintain stable democratic government in plural societies. Consociational democracy can be characterized by the cooperative attitude and behavior of the leaders of the different segments of the population. In other meanings, there will be elite cooperation. This model of Consociational democracy is both, normative and an empirical. In Austria, Belgium, Netherland and Switzerland, there are sharp political divisions, but due to Consoiciational democracy, there is existence of political stability. In Austria, political stability can be observed in the forms of Catholic-Socialist elite cooperation and grand coalition.
In non-Western countries, as Arend Lijphart highlights twin problems, and there are, sharp cleavages of various kind and political stability. For the successful democratic regimes in the third world, due to plural societies, Consociational democracy is based, also on normative model. A Plural society is a society, divided by segmental cleavages, and, political stability is characterized by system maintenance, legitimacy, civil order and effectiveness. Without these four elements, which are also interdependent, political stability cannot be existed. According to Geberial Almond, there are four types of political systems;
1) Anglo-American Political System
2) Continental European Political System
3) Pre-Industrial Political System
4) Totalitarian Political System.
He says that Anglo- American and Continental European Political systems show democratic regimes. Anglo-American political system is a homogenous and secular political system, while Continental European political system is characterized by a fragmentation of political culture due to plural societies within European countries.
According to Geberial Almond, Separation of power doctrine is also concerned with political stability. He extends idea of “separation of power” from three formal branches of government, executives and legislature, to informal political subcultures like parties, interest groups and the media of communication. He much more emphasizes on input structures than the output structures.
Duverger and Neumann argue that there is close relationship between number of parties and democratic stability, but two party system not only seems to correspond to the nature of things because it can moderate than multipolarity system. In other words, two party system is the best aggregation. In Switzerland, there is multiparty system, while in Austria, there is two party system.
Arend Lijphart says that there are deep divisions between different segments of the population and the absence of the unifying consensus in most of the Asian, African and South American countries like Guyana, Surinam and Trinidad. According to Cliffard Geartz, Communal attachment is called “primordial loyalties”, which may be based on language, religion, custom, region, race or assumed blood ties. Each communal group hold its assumed ties, therefore there is political instability and breakdown of democracy up until now.
He argues that due to political development, western countries have created homogeneity among their plural societies, as like idealize British society. But Geberial Almond says that, in Continental European political system, there is no secularism and political homogeneity, but there is cultural homogeneity. He argues that, non-western countries would become more comprehensive and less remote they use this continental type, which is based on a multi-racial (multi-national) society and lacking in strong consensus.
Furnivall says that democracy is achieved by the European countries with the help of Consociationalism, and, there is fulfillment the requirements and demands of the divided societies through appropriate techniques. On the other hand, in non-western countries, there is lack of strengthen social will and social unity due to divided society, and, it is dangerous for both, the democracy and a considerable degree of political unity.
Fredrik Barth
Thomas Fredrik Weybye Barth is a Norwegian social anthropologist who has published several ethnographic books with a clear formalistic view...
as a society
Society
A society, or a human society, is a group of people related to each other through persistent relations, or a large social grouping sharing the same geographical or virtual territory, subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations...
combining ethnic contrasts: the economic
Economics
Economics is the social science that analyzes the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. The term economics comes from the Ancient Greek from + , hence "rules of the house"...
interdependence of those groups, and the ecological
Ecology
Ecology is the scientific study of the relations that living organisms have with respect to each other and their natural environment. Variables of interest to ecologists include the composition, distribution, amount , number, and changing states of organisms within and among ecosystems...
specialization (i.e., use of different environmental resources by each ethnic group). The ecological interdependence, or the lack of competition, between ethnic groups may be based on the different activities in the same region or on long–term occupation of different regions in the same nation–state. In Barth’s view, ethnic boundaries are most enduring and stable when groups occupy different ecological niches; simply, they make their living in different ways and don’t compete. When different ethnic groups exploit the same ecological niche, the militarily
Military
A military is an organization authorized by its greater society to use lethal force, usually including use of weapons, in defending its country by combating actual or perceived threats. The military may have additional functions of use to its greater society, such as advancing a political agenda e.g...
more powerful group will normally replace the weaker one. However, if the weaker group is better able to use marginal environments, the two groups could also coexist. Ethnic boundaries, distinctions, and interdependence can be maintained given niche specialization, although specific cultural features of each group may change.
Defined by J S Furnivall as a medley of people
People
People is a plurality of human beings or other beings possessing enough qualities constituting personhood. It has two usages:* as the plural of person or a group of people People is a plurality of human beings or other beings possessing enough qualities constituting personhood. It has two usages:*...
s - European
Demographics of Europe
Figures for the population of Europe vary according to which definition of European boundaries is used. The population within the standard physical geographical boundaries was 731 million in 2005 according to the United Nations. In 2010 the population is 857 million, using a definition which...
, Chinese, Indian
Demographics of India
The demographics of India are inclusive of the second most populous country in the world, with over 1.21 billion people , more than a sixth of the world's population. Already containing 17.5% of the world's population, India is projected to be the world's most populous country by 2025, surpassing...
and native, who do mix but do not combine. Each group holds by its own religion
Religion
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, belief systems, and worldviews that establishes symbols that relate humanity to spirituality and, sometimes, to moral values. Many religions have narratives, symbols, traditions and sacred histories that are intended to give meaning to life or to...
, its own culture
Culture
Culture is a term that has many different inter-related meanings. For example, in 1952, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions...
and language
Language
Language may refer either to the specifically human capacity for acquiring and using complex systems of communication, or to a specific instance of such a system of complex communication...
, its own idea
Idea
In the most narrow sense, an idea is just whatever is before the mind when one thinks. Very often, ideas are construed as representational images; i.e. images of some object. In other contexts, ideas are taken to be concepts, although abstract concepts do not necessarily appear as images...
s and ways. As individuals they meet, but only in the marketplace
Marketplace
A marketplace is the space, actual, virtual or metaphorical, in which a market operates. The term is also used in a trademark law context to denote the actual consumer environment, ie. the 'real world' in which products and services are provided and consumed.-Marketplaces and street markets:A...
in buy
Buy
Buy may refer to:*Trade, exchange of goods and services*BUY , Burlington, North Carolina*Buy.com, a shopping website*Buy , a 1979 album by James White and the Contortions...
ing and sell
Sell
Sell can refer to:*A verb relating to sales*Sell *One of several people named Edward Sell *Mary Elizabeth Sell, New York City Ballet dancer*Friedrich L...
ing. There is a plural society, with different sections of the community
Community
The term community has two distinct meanings:*a group of interacting people, possibly living in close proximity, and often refers to a group that shares some common values, and is attributed with social cohesion within a shared geographical location, generally in social units larger than a household...
living side by side, within the same political
Politics
Politics is a process by which groups of people make collective decisions. The term is generally applied to the art or science of running governmental or state affairs, including behavior within civil governments, but also applies to institutions, fields, and special interest groups such as the...
unit.
Plural Societies and Democratic Regimes
During research about plural societies, Asim Ejaz, Student of M.phil Political Science in Islamia university bahawalpur, Pakistan, presented his analytical summary about the book of Arend Lijphart, "democracy in plural societies" that it is so much difficult to achieve and stable democratic government in plural society. As Aristotle says about stable governing system that, “a state aims at being, as far as it can be, a society composed of equal & peers”. For the stability of democratic regimes, there must be social homogeneity and political consensus among the deep social divisions, and, there must be ended of political differences. There are, because, the factors that help in producing instability and breakdown of democracies.Arend Lijphart, therefore, used particular form of democracy, “Consociational Democracy”, which is, according to him, may be difficult but it is not at all impossible to achieve and maintain stable democratic government in plural societies. Consociational democracy can be characterized by the cooperative attitude and behavior of the leaders of the different segments of the population. In other meanings, there will be elite cooperation. This model of Consociational democracy is both, normative and an empirical. In Austria, Belgium, Netherland and Switzerland, there are sharp political divisions, but due to Consoiciational democracy, there is existence of political stability. In Austria, political stability can be observed in the forms of Catholic-Socialist elite cooperation and grand coalition.
In non-Western countries, as Arend Lijphart highlights twin problems, and there are, sharp cleavages of various kind and political stability. For the successful democratic regimes in the third world, due to plural societies, Consociational democracy is based, also on normative model. A Plural society is a society, divided by segmental cleavages, and, political stability is characterized by system maintenance, legitimacy, civil order and effectiveness. Without these four elements, which are also interdependent, political stability cannot be existed. According to Geberial Almond, there are four types of political systems;
1) Anglo-American Political System
2) Continental European Political System
3) Pre-Industrial Political System
4) Totalitarian Political System.
He says that Anglo- American and Continental European Political systems show democratic regimes. Anglo-American political system is a homogenous and secular political system, while Continental European political system is characterized by a fragmentation of political culture due to plural societies within European countries.
According to Geberial Almond, Separation of power doctrine is also concerned with political stability. He extends idea of “separation of power” from three formal branches of government, executives and legislature, to informal political subcultures like parties, interest groups and the media of communication. He much more emphasizes on input structures than the output structures.
Duverger and Neumann argue that there is close relationship between number of parties and democratic stability, but two party system not only seems to correspond to the nature of things because it can moderate than multipolarity system. In other words, two party system is the best aggregation. In Switzerland, there is multiparty system, while in Austria, there is two party system.
Arend Lijphart says that there are deep divisions between different segments of the population and the absence of the unifying consensus in most of the Asian, African and South American countries like Guyana, Surinam and Trinidad. According to Cliffard Geartz, Communal attachment is called “primordial loyalties”, which may be based on language, religion, custom, region, race or assumed blood ties. Each communal group hold its assumed ties, therefore there is political instability and breakdown of democracy up until now.
He argues that due to political development, western countries have created homogeneity among their plural societies, as like idealize British society. But Geberial Almond says that, in Continental European political system, there is no secularism and political homogeneity, but there is cultural homogeneity. He argues that, non-western countries would become more comprehensive and less remote they use this continental type, which is based on a multi-racial (multi-national) society and lacking in strong consensus.
Furnivall says that democracy is achieved by the European countries with the help of Consociationalism, and, there is fulfillment the requirements and demands of the divided societies through appropriate techniques. On the other hand, in non-western countries, there is lack of strengthen social will and social unity due to divided society, and, it is dangerous for both, the democracy and a considerable degree of political unity.
Consociational Democracy and the Segments of Plural Society
As Arend Lijhpart argue that there is constitutionalization for the segments of plural societies, and its better solution is consociational or semi-consociational democratic system. this system provides the facility of Mutual veto regarding Decision making process on the specific issues within the country, to all the segments of society with equality. but Arend Lijhpart highlights Malysia and Lebanon for its perfect example. In Lebanon, there are Shia's And Sunni's in Muslim Segment while Christians are also in vast majority. Similarly in Malysia, there are Chinese with local Communities.Criticism
Arend Lijhpart does not include communist countries in the list of Consociational and Semi-consociational Democracy regarding study of plural societies, and during critical analysis of his views, Asim Ejaz argued that even there is single party system, but society is divided in different segments. no one can stop any segment to join that particular political party, as like Chinese communist party in china, or Cuban communist party in Cuba. Segments of plural Society can represent their self within that political party and can create an influence upon decision making regarding their own interests or in favour of that segment after having due share in that political party. So Single party system is also include in the consociational or semi-consociational democracies, whenever there is not dictatorship of particular segment of the society on that political party. Opennesss for joining even single political party is also an example of democratic socialism, which is purely local cultural based, characterized by their local traditions, even successful in People Republic of China nowadays, where Mangols from "Inner Mangolia", Haan and Yugur from "Xinjiang", Tibetan from "Tibet" and several other segments of society are joining Communist party of China without any hurdle and contributing in the welfare for their as well as other societies of their country.See also
- Ethnic groupEthnic groupAn ethnic group is a group of people whose members identify with each other, through a common heritage, often consisting of a common language, a common culture and/or an ideology that stresses common ancestry or endogamy...
- MulticulturalismMulticulturalismMulticulturalism is the appreciation, acceptance or promotion of multiple cultures, applied to the demographic make-up of a specific place, usually at the organizational level, e.g...
- PolyethnicityPolyethnicityPolyethnicity refers to the close proximity of people from different ethnic backgrounds within a country or other specific geographic region. It also relates to the ability and willingness of individuals to identify themselves with multiple ethnicities...