Njál's saga
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Njáll Þorgeirsson
Njáll Þorgeirsson was a 10th century Icelandic lawyer who lived at Bergþórshvol and is one of the main protagonists of Njáls saga, a medieval Icelandic saga.Njáll was the son of Þorgeir "gollnir" Ófeigsson...
, a lawyer and a sage, and Gunnarr Hámundarson, a formidable warrior. In the course of a feud
Feud
A feud , referred to in more extreme cases as a blood feud, vendetta, faida, or private war, is a long-running argument or fight between parties—often groups of people, especially families or clans. Feuds begin because one party perceives itself to have been attacked, insulted or wronged by another...
, Gunnarr is exiled and must leave Iceland but as he rides away from his home he is struck by the beauty of the land and resolves to stay; this quickly leads to his death. Some years later, Njáll is burned alive in his home as a part of a cycle of killing and vengeance.
The saga deals with the process of blood feuds in the Icelandic Commonwealth
Icelandic Commonwealth
The Icelandic Commonwealth, Icelandic Free State, or Republic of Iceland was the state existing in Iceland between the establishment of the Althing in 930 and the pledge of fealty to the Norwegian king in 1262...
, showing how the requirements of honor could lead to minor slights spiralling into destructive and prolonged bloodshed. Insults where a character's manhood is called into question are especially prominent and may reflect an author critical of an overly restrictive ideal of masculinity. Another characteristic of the narrative is the presence of omens and prophetic dreams. It is disputed whether this reflects a fatalistic
Fatalism
Fatalism is a philosophical doctrine emphasizing the subjugation of all events or actions to fate.Fatalism generally refers to several of the following ideas:...
outlook on part of the author.
The saga dates to the late 13th century while the events described take place between 960 and 1020. The work is anonymous, although there has been extensive speculation on the author's identity. The major events described in the saga are probably historical but the material was shaped by the author, drawing on oral tradition, according to his artistic needs. Njáls saga is the longest and most highly developed of the sagas of Icelanders. It is often considered the peak of the saga tradition.
Authorship and sources
Njáls saga, like the other sagas of Icelanders, must be considered anonymous - its author is not mentioned in any medieval source. There are, however, many theories about the saga's authorship. The oldest idea, attested in the early 17th century, is that Sæmundr fróðiSæmundr fróði
Sæmundr Sigfússon was an Icelandic priest and scholar. Sæmundr is known to have studied abroad. Previously it has generally been held that he studied in France, but modern scholars rather believe his studies were carried out in Franconia. In Iceland he founded a long-lived school at Oddi...
wrote the work. Other suggested authors include Sæmundr's sons, Jón Loftsson
Jón Loftsson
Jón Loftsson was chieftain at Oddi in the county of Rangá in the south part of Iceland, and of the Oddaverjar family clan. He was one of the most popular chieftains and politician of his age in the country. He participated in the so-called Staðarmál, in 1179, against the Roman-Catholic Church and...
, Snorri Sturluson
Snorri Sturluson
Snorri Sturluson was an Icelandic historian, poet, and politician. He was twice elected lawspeaker at the Icelandic parliament, the Althing...
, Einarr Gilsson
Einarr Gilsson
Einarr Gilsson was an Icelandic poet and official. He was the lögmaður of northern and western Iceland from 1367 to 1369. He is mentioned already in letters dating from 1339 and 1340 but his years of birth and death are unknown...
, Brandr Jónsson and Þorvarðr Þórarinsson.
The saga is now believed to have been composed in the period from 1270 to 1290. Among written sources which the author likely used are Laxdœla saga
Laxdœla saga
Laxdæla saga ; also Laxdœla saga, Laxdoela saga, Laxdaela saga, or The Saga of the People of Laxárdalr) is one of the Icelanders' sagas. Written in the 13th century, it tells of people in the Breiðafjörður area of Iceland from the late 9th century to the early 11th century...
, Eyrbyggja saga
Eyrbyggja saga
Eyrbyggja saga is one of the Icelanders' sagas. The name means the saga of the inhabitants of Eyrr, which is a farm on Snæfellsnes on Iceland. The name is slightly misleading as it deals also with the clans of Þórsnes and Alptafjörðr. The most central character is Snorri Þorgrímsson or Snorri goði...
and Ljósvetninga saga
Ljósvetninga saga
-External links:**...
as well as the lost sagas Brjáns saga
Brjáns saga
Brjáns saga is a hypothetical early specimen of Old Norse literature. According to the hypothesis certain episodes in Njáls saga and Þorsteins saga Síðu-Hallssonar drew on this lost saga....
and Gauks saga Trandilssonar. The author must, however, have derived the bulk of the material in the saga from oral tradition
Oral tradition
Oral tradition and oral lore is cultural material and traditions transmitted orally from one generation to another. The messages or testimony are verbally transmitted in speech or song and may take the form, for example, of folktales, sayings, ballads, songs, or chants...
which he manipulated for his own artistic purposes. Opinions on the historicity of the saga have varied greatly, ranging from pure fiction to nearly verbatim truth to any number of nuanced views. It can be regarded as certain that Njáll and Gunnarr were real historical people and their fateful deaths are referred to in other sources. Gabriel Turville-Petre
Gabriel Turville-Petre
Edward Oswald Gabriel Turville-Petre F.B.A. was Professor of Ancient Icelandic Literature and Antiquities at the University of Oxford...
said, "It was not the author's purpose to write a work of history, but rather to use an historical subject for an epic in prose".
Themes
Njáls saga explores the consequences of vengeance as a defence of family honor by dealing with a blood feudBlood Feud
"Blood Feud" is the twenty-second and final episode of The Simpsons second season. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on July 11, 1991. In the episode, Mr. Burns falls ill and desperately needs a blood transfusion. Homer discovers Bart has Burns' rare blood type and urges...
spanning some 50 years. The saga shows how even worthy people can destroy themselves by disputes and demonstrates the tensions in the Icelandic Commonwealth
Icelandic Commonwealth
The Icelandic Commonwealth, Icelandic Free State, or Republic of Iceland was the state existing in Iceland between the establishment of the Althing in 930 and the pledge of fealty to the Norwegian king in 1262...
which eventually led to its destruction. Any insult to one's honor had to be revenged, sometimes this includes slights which seem trivial to modern readers. Magnus Magnusson
Magnus Magnusson
Magnus Magnusson KBE was a television presenter, journalist, translator and writer. He was born in Iceland but lived in Scotland for almost all of his life, although he never took British citizenship...
finds it "a little pathetic, now, to read how vulnerable these men were to calls on their honour; it was fatally easy to goad them into action to avenge some suspicion of an insult".
Insults involving a character's manliness are especially prominent in the saga. Thus, Njáll's lack of a beard is repeatedly referred to and used by his opponents to call his manhood into question. Another example, among many, is when the gift of a silk garment is considered an insult by Flosi and a hard-won settlement breaks down as a consequence. Ármann Jakobsson states that it "it turns out to be difficult to find a man whose manhood is not vulnerable" and argues that Njáls saga criticizes the norms of a misogynist society by showing that the ideal of masculinity can be so restrictive that it becomes oppressive to men and destructive to society.
Omens, prophetic dreams and supernatural foresight figure prominently in Njáls saga. The role of fate
Destiny
Destiny or fate refers to a predetermined course of events. It may be conceived as a predetermined future, whether in general or of an individual...
and, especially, of fatalism
Fatalism
Fatalism is a philosophical doctrine emphasizing the subjugation of all events or actions to fate.Fatalism generally refers to several of the following ideas:...
is, however, a matter of scholarly contention. Halldór Laxness
Halldór Laxness
Halldór Kiljan Laxness was a twentieth-century Icelandic writer. Throughout his career Laxness wrote poetry, newspaper articles, plays, travelogues, short stories, and novels...
argued that the saga is primarily a book about the fatalism inherent in Norse paganism
Norse paganism
Norse paganism is the religious traditions of the Norsemen, a Germanic people living in the Nordic countries. Norse paganism is therefore a subset of Germanic paganism, which was practiced in the lands inhabited by the Germanic tribes across most of Northern and Central Europe in the Viking Age...
. In his view, the course of events is forordained from the moment Hrútr sees the thieves' eyes in his niece and until the vengeance for Njáll's burning is completed south in Wales. In this way, Laxness believed that Njáls saga attested to the presence of a "very strong heathen spirit", antithetical to Christianity, in 13th century Iceland. Magnus Magnusson
Magnus Magnusson
Magnus Magnusson KBE was a television presenter, journalist, translator and writer. He was born in Iceland but lived in Scotland for almost all of his life, although he never took British citizenship...
wrote that "[t]he action is swept along by a powerful under-current of fate" and that Njáll wages a "fierce struggle to alter its course" but that he is nevertheless "not a fatalist in the heathen sense". Thorsteinn Gylfason rejects the idea that there is any fatalism in Njáls saga, arguing that there is no hostile supernatural plan which its characters are subject to.
Hrútr and Hallgerðr
The first episode covers the period from the betrothal of Hrútr Herjólfsson and Unn to the ugly legacy of their divorce. We are shown Hrútr's exploits in Norway, where he gains honour at court and in battle, but he ruins his subsequent marriage by becoming the lover of the aging queen mother GunnhildrGunnhild Mother of Kings
Gunnhild konungamóðir or Gunnhild Gormsdóttir is a character who appears in the Icelandic Sagas, according to which she was the wife of Eric Bloodaxe . Many of the details of her life are disputed, including her parentage...
. When he denies having a woman in Iceland, she curses him so that he is unable to consummate his marriage. After Unnr divorces him, he retains the dowry by challenging Unnr's father, Mörðr, to combat. Mörðr refuses, as he knows Hrútr's reputation and that he will lose the fight. Because of this, Hrútr keeps the dowry. While this conforms to Icelandic law, it offends justice.
The first chapter gives one of Hrútr's insights when he comments of his beautiful niece, "I do not know how thieves' eyes came into the family". The saga next follows this niece, Hallgerðr, through her first two marriages. Both husbands die by the axe of Hallgerðr's doting, brutish foster-father. Hallgerðr provokes the first death but not the second, although it follows from a disagreement between her and her husband. It is Hrútr who, despite the family ties, avenges the death by killing Þjóstólfr.
Gunnarr and Njáll
Gunnarr Hámundarson and Njáll ÞorgeirssonNjáll Þorgeirsson
Njáll Þorgeirsson was a 10th century Icelandic lawyer who lived at Bergþórshvol and is one of the main protagonists of Njáls saga, a medieval Icelandic saga.Njáll was the son of Þorgeir "gollnir" Ófeigsson...
are now introduced. Gunnarr is a man of outstanding physical prowess, and Njáll has outstanding sagacity; they are close friends. When Gunnarr is obliged to revive Unnr's dowry-claim against Hrútr, Njáll gives him the means to do so. By skilful play-acting, Gunnarr begins the legal process in Hrútr's own house. He follows Hrútr's doubtful example when it comes to court, and Hrútr, who has previously won by threat of violence, loses to a threat of violence. Despite his humiliation, he sees future links with Gunnarr.
This comes about when Gunnarr returns with honours from a trip to Scandinavia. He goes to the Althing
Althing
The Alþingi, anglicised variously as Althing or Althingi, is the national parliament of Iceland. The Althingi is the oldest parliamentary institution in the world still extant...
– the annual assembly – in splendour, and meets Hallgerðr. They are impressed with one another and are soon betrothed, despite Hrútr's warnings about Hallgerðr's character, and Njáll's misgivings.
Hrútr and Njáll are proven right when Hallgerðr clashes with Njál's wife, Bergþóra. Hallgerðr charms a number of dubious characters into killing members of Njáll's household and the spirited Bergþóra arranges vengeance. After each killing, their husbands make financial settlements according to the status of the victims. The fifth victim is Þórðr, foster-father of Njáll's sons. Þráinn Sigfússon, Gunnarr's uncle and Hallgerðr's son-in-law, accompanies the killers. When the feud ends and settlements are made, Þráinn’s presence at that killing later causes conflict.
Gunnarr's feuds
Hallgerðr now uses one of her slaves, Melkólfr to burgle the home of a churlish man named Otkell. Gunnarr immediately seeks to make amends, but his handsome offers are not accepted. A lawsuit is started against him which, with Njáll's help, he wins, gaining great honour. However, while remonstrating with Hallgerðr about the burglary, Gunnar slaps her.This is followed by Otkell accidentally wounding Gunnarr. Insult follows injury and Gunnar reluctantly goes to avenge himself. With belated help from his brother Kolskeggr, he kills Otkell and his companions.
Under Njáll's influence a new settlement is arranged, and Gunnarr's reputation grows. Njáll warns him that this will be the start of his career of killings.
Next, Gunnarr accepts a challenge to a horse-fight from a man called Starkaðr. In the course of the fight, his opponents cheat, and Gunnarr find himself in a fresh squabble. Njáll tries to mediate but Þorgeir Starkaðsson refuses to accept it. On a journey with his two brothers, Gunnarr is ambushed by Starkaðr and his allies. In the battle, fourteen attackers and Gunnarr's brother Hjörtr are killed.
Worming through all this is Unnr's son, Mörðr Valgarðsson. Mörður envies and hates Gunnarr, and uses other men to attain his aims. He has learned that Njáll prophesied that Gunnarr will die if he kills twice in the same family. He instigates an attack on Gunnarr by persons dissatisfied by the settlement. Again, Gunnarr wins the fight, but he kills a second man in the same family. The settlement that follows requires that Gunnarr and Kolskeggr leave Iceland for three years.
Arrangements are made for exile. But as Gunnar leaves home, he looks homeward and, touched by the beauty of his homeland, resolves not to leave Iceland, thus becoming an outlaw. He goes about as though nothing has changed but his enemies, Mörðr among them, seek revenge. He defends himself in his home until his bowstring is cut. Hallgerðr refuses to give him strands of her hair to restring his bow; this is in revenge for the slap he once gave her. Some readers choose to interpret this episode as her forgiveness since human hair is unusable as bowstring; i.e. he asks for something he knows is useless and she answers by denying as revenge, fully knowing too. Gunnarr's enemies resist Mörðrs proposal to burn him in the house as shameful, but eventually they take the roof off to get to Gunnarr. Njáll's son Skarp-Heðinn assists Högni Gunnarsson in some acts of vengeance before a settlement is achieved.
Kári and the sons of Njáll
Scandinavian rulers honor two Icelandic expeditions: those of Þráinn Sigfússon and of Njáll's two younger sons. Both return with enhanced honor, but also with companions. Þráinn brings back the malevolent Betrayal-Hrappr; the sons of Njáll the noble Kári SölmundarsonKari Solmundarson
Kári Sölmundarson was a Hebridean viking and soldier of fortune who lived in the late tenth and early eleventh centuries. He is a major character in Njál's Saga. Kári was the son of Solmund, who was the son of Thorbjorn "Jarl's Champion," an Icelander exiled before the establishment of the Althing...
, who marries their sister. But Njáll's sons also bring back a grievance, blaming Þráinn for the way in which the de-facto ruler of Norway, Jarl Hákon
Haakon Sigurdsson
Haakon Sigurdarsson was the de facto ruler of Norway from about 975 to 995.-Background:Haakon was the son of Sigurd Haakonsson, Jarl of Lade and ruler of Trøndelag and Hålogaland. His mother was Bergljot Toresdatter, daughter of Tore Ragnvaldsson, Earl of Møre...
, has treated them while looking for Hrappr, who had been hidden by Þráinn. While Njáll says they have been foolish in raising the matter, he advises them to publicise it so that it will be seen as a matter of honor. Þrain refuses a settlement, and his retainers, including Hallgerðr, on her last appearance, insult them.
The most dramatic of the saga's battles follows. Njáll's sons, with Kári, prepare to ambush Þráinn and his followers. There is a bridge of ice over the river between them. Skarp-Heðinn overtakes his brothers, leaps the river, and slides on the ice past Þráinn, beheading him in passing. Between them the attackers kill four men, including Hrappr.
Þráinn's brother, Ketill, has married Njáll's daughter, and between them they bring about a settlement. Wishing to stop further contention, Njáll adopts Þráinn's son Höskuldr as his foster-son. Höskuldr grows up in Njáll's household, and is loved and favoured by him. When he is fully grown, Njal attempts to find a suitable wife for him, Hildigunnr. However, she refuses, saying that she will only marry Höskuldr if he becomes a chieftain. Njal manages to get Höskuldur a chieftaincy by instituting the Fifth Court at the Althing, and Höskuldur and Hildigunnr are married.
At this point the saga recounts the conversion of Iceland to Christianity in AD 999.
Höskuldur and Flosi, the burning
Mörðr Valgarðsson now finds Höskuldr to be such a successful chief that his own chieftaincy is declining. He sets the sons of Njáll against Höskuldr; the tragedy of the saga is that they are so susceptible to his promptings that they, with Mörðr and Kári, murder him as he sows in his field. As one character says, "Höskuldr was killed for less than no reason; all men mourn his death; but none more than Njal, his foster-father".Flosi, the uncle of Höskuldr's wife, takes revenge against the killers, and seeks help from powerful chieftains. He is pressured (against his better judgement) by Hildigunnr to accept only blood vengeance. Njáll's sons find themselves at the Althing having to plead for help. Skarp-Heðinn has become grimly fatalistic, and insults many who might help them.
After some legal sparring, arbitrators are chosen, including Snorri goði
Snorri Goði
Snorri Þorgrímsson or Snorri Goði was a prominent chieftain in Western Iceland, who featured in a number of Icelandic sagas. The main source of his life is the Eyrbyggja saga, in which he is the main character, although he also figures prominently in Njál's saga and the Laxdæla saga...
, who proposes a weregild
Weregild
Weregild was a value placed on every human being and every piece of property in the Salic Code...
of three times the normal compensation for Höskuldur. This is so much that it can only be paid if the arbitrators, and many at the Althing, contribute. The great collection is gathered, and Njáll adds a gift of a fancy cloak. Flosi claims to be insulted by the offer of a unisex garment (an insult from Skarp-Heðinn also adds fuel to the fire) and the settlement breaks down.
Everyone leaves the Althing and prepares, amid portents and prophecies, for the showdown. A hundred men descend on Njáll's home, Bergthorsknoll
Bergþórshvoll
Bergþórshvoll is an important setting in the Icelandic saga Njál's saga, the home and scene of the final burning of Njáll Þorgeirsson and his entire family.-External links:*...
(Bergþórshváll), to find it defended by about thirty. Any victory for Flosi will be at some cost. But Njáll suggests that his sons defend from within the house, and they, while realizing that this is futile, agree. Flosi and his men set fire to the building.
Both the innocent and the guilty are surrounded. Flosi allows the women to leave but beheads Helgi Njálsson, who attempts to escape disguised as a woman. Although Flosi invites Njáll and Bergþóra to leave, they refuse, preferring to die with their sons and their grandson Þórðr (the son of Kári). Eventually eleven people die, not including Kári who escapes under cover of the smoke by running along the beam of the house. Flosi knows that Kári will exact vengeance for the burning.
The Althing
At the Althing, both sides gather. Flosi bribes Eyjólfr Bölverksson, one of the finest lawyers in Iceland, into taking over the case, while his opponents blackmail Mörðr Valgarðsson into prosecuting, advised by Þórhallr, Njáll's foster-son, who was trained in the law by Njáll, but is kept aways from the proceedings by an infected leg. There is a legal joust between the parties. Eventually, when his legal action seems to be failing, Þórhallr lances his boil with his spear and begins fighting. Flosi's men are driven back until Snorri separates the parties. In the confusion, several are killed including Ljótr, Flosi's brother-in-law.Ljótr's father, Hallr of Síða, takes advantage of the truce to appeal for peace, and, in a move that marks a change to Christian thinking, seeks no compensation for his son. Moved by this, all but Kári and Njáll's nephew Þorgeir reach a settlement, while everyone contributes to Ljótr's weregild, which in the end amounts to a quadruple compensation. The burners are exiled.
Before the sons of Sigfús reach home, Kári attacks them, and most of the rest of the saga describes his vengeance for the burning. He is supported by Þorgeir and an attractive anti-hero named Björn. He pursues them to Orkney and Wales. The most dramatic moment is when he breaks into the earl's hall in Orkney and kills a man who is giving a slanderous account of those killed at the burning.
After a pilgrimage to Rome, Flosi returns to Iceland. Kári follows, and is shipwrecked near Flosi's home. Testing Flosi's nobility he goes to him for help, and they arrange a final peace. Kári marries Höskuldr's widow. Finally, there is a full reconciliation.
Popular culture
- An IcelandIcelandIceland , described as the Republic of Iceland, is a Nordic and European island country in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Iceland also refers to the main island of the country, which contains almost all the population and almost all the land area. The country has a population...
ic short film called Brennu-Njálssaga (known by its EnglishEnglish languageEnglish is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...
title in EuropeEuropeEurope is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
as The Saga of Burnt Njal) was directed by Friðrik Þór FriðrikssonFriðrik Þór FriðrikssonFriðrik Þór Friðriksson , sometimes credited as Fridrik Thor Fridriksson, is an Icelandic film director....
and released 1981. The film is featured on the Icelandic DVD release of Angels of the UniverseAngels of the UniverseAngels of the Universe is a 2000 Icelandic film and directed by Friðrik Þór Friðriksson. The leading role is played by Ingvar E. Sigurðsson, who was nominated for the European Film Awards for best acting...
. Featured in the soundtrack is a song called "Brennu-Njálssaga," composed by the Icelandic New WaveNew Wave musicNew Wave is a subgenre of :rock music that emerged in the mid to late 1970s alongside punk rock. The term at first generally was synonymous with punk rock before being considered a genre in its own right that incorporated aspects of electronic and experimental music, mod subculture, disco and 1960s...
band, ÞeyrÞeyrÞeyr was a renowned Icelandic New Wave band from the early 1980s. Shrouded under a veil of mystery, their three-year existence was characterized by a deep interest in ancient wisdom...
with the collaboration of Hilmar Örn HilmarssonHilmar Örn HilmarssonHilmar Örn Hilmarsson , also known as HÖH , is a musician, an art director, and allsherjargoði of Ásatrúarfélagið ....
. This song later appeared in 1981 when the group released its single Iður til FótaIður til FótaIður til Fóta was a single released in 1981 by the Icelandic New Wave/rock group Þeyr through Eskvímó and it was edited in 10" format. The title translates as "Moving Your Feet" but in Icelandic also forms a pun which can equally translate as "Guts at Your Feet".This record was never reissued since...
(in the cassette version only).
- Episode 27 of Monty Python's Flying CircusMonty Python's Flying CircusMonty Python’s Flying Circus is a BBC TV sketch comedy series. The shows were composed of surreality, risqué or innuendo-laden humour, sight gags and observational sketches without punchlines...
is titled "Njorl's Saga". The "saga" in question is quite unrelated to any events in Njal's Saga, despite the similarities between the names.
External links
- Icelandic text with translations into many languages at the Icelandic Saga Database
- An online public domain edition of Njal's Saga: George DasentGeorge Webbe DasentSir George Webbe Dasent was a translator of folk tales and contributor to The Times.Dasent was born 22 May 1817 at St. Vincent, West Indies, the son of the attorney general, John Roche Dasent...
's English translation. University of California, Berkeley - Modernized Icelandic text
- The official Njal's Saga website—The Njála museum in Hvolsvöllur, Iceland
- Proverbs in Njáls saga