Neuroendocrinology
Encyclopedia
Neuroendocrinology is the study of the extensive interactions between the nervous system
and the endocrine system
, including the biological features of the cells that participate, and how they functionally communicate. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the hypothalamus
, controls secretion of pituitary gland
hormone
s, and has subsequently expanded to investigate numerous interconnections of the endocrine and nervous systems.
(1906-1995), of the University of Munich, and a professor at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine
co-founded the field of neuroendocrinology with their initial observations and proposals concerning neuropeptide
s.
Geoffrey Harris (1913-1971) is considered by many to be the "father" of neuroendocrinology. Geoffrey Harris, the Dr. Lee's Professor of Anatomy at Oxford University is credited with showing that the anterior pituitary gland of mammals is regulated by factors secreted by hypothalamic neuron
s into the hypothalamohypophysial portal circulation. By contrast, the hormones of the posterior pituitary gland are secreted into the systemic circulation
directly from the nerve endings of hypothalamic neurons.
The first of these factors to be identified are thyrotropin-releasing hormone
(TRH) and gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH). TRH is a small peptide
that stimulates the secretion
of thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH); GnRH (also called luteinising hormone-releasing hormone, LHRH) stimulates the secretion of luteinizing hormone
and follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH).
Roger Guillemin
, a medical student of Faculté de Médecine of Lyon and Andrew W. Schally of Tulane University
isolated these factors from the hypothalamus of sheep and pigs, and then identified their structures. Guillemin and Schally were awarded the Nobel Prize
in Physiology and Medicine in 1977 for their contributions to understanding "the peptide hormone production of the brain."
In 1952, Andor Szentivanyi of the University of South Florida
and Geza Filipp wrote the world's first research paper showing how neural control of immunity takes place through the hypothalamus.
. Collectively, hormones regulate many physiological processes.
Oxytocin
and vasopressin
/anti-diuretic hormone, the two peptide hormones of the posterior pituitary gland (the neurohypophysis), are secreted from the nerve endings of magnocellular neurosecretory neurons into the systemic circulation. The cell bodies of these oxytocin and vasopressin neurons are in the paraventricular nucleus
and supraoptic nucleus
, respectively, and the electrical activity of these neurons is regulated by afferent synaptic inputs from other brain regions. By contrast, the hormones of the anterior pituitary gland (the adenohypophysis) are secreted from endocrine cells that, in mammals, are not directly innervated, yet the secretion of these hormones (adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), luteinizing hormone
(LH), follicle-stimulating hormone
(FSH), thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH), prolactin
and growth hormone
) remains under the control of the brain. The brain controls the anterior pituitary gland by releasing factors and release-inhibiting factors; these are blood-borne substances released by hypothalamic neurons into blood vessels at the base of the brain, at the median eminence
. These vessels, the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal vessels, carry the hypothalamic factors to the adenohypophysis
, where they bind to specific receptors on the surface of the hormone-producing cells.
For example, the secretion of growth hormone is controlled by two neuroendocrine systems: the growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) neurons and the somatostatin
neurons, which stimulate and inhibit GH secretion, respectively. The GHRH neurones are located in the arcuate nucleus
of the hypothalamus, whereas the somatostatin cells involved in growth hormone regulation are in the periventricular nucleus
. These two neuronal systems project axons to the median eminence, where they release their peptides into portal blood vessels for transport to the anterior pituitary. Growth hormone is secreted in pulses, which arise from alternating episodes of GHRH release and somatostatin release, which may reflect neuronal interactions between the GHRH and somatostatin cells, and negative feedback from growth hormone.
These systems are of great interest to both physiologists and neuroscientists for a variety of reasons. First, neuroendocrine systems control reproduction in all its aspects, from bonding to sexual behavior. They control spermatogenesis
and the ovarian cycle, parturition, lactation
, and maternal behaviour
. They control the body's response to stress
and infection
. They regulate the body's metabolism
, influencing eating and drinking behaviour, and influence how energy intake is utilised, that is, how fat is metabolized. They influence and regulate mood, body fluid and electrolyte homeostasis, and blood pressure
. Therefore, essential in gaining understanding of the issues at the core of many of today's health concerns is to understand the neuroendocrine system.
Second, the neurons of the neuroendocrine system are large; they are mini factories for producing secretory products; their nerve terminal are large and organised in coherent terminal fields; their output can often be measured easily in the blood; and what these neurons do and what stimuli they respond to are readily open to hypothesis and experiment. Hence, neuroendocrine neurons are good "model systems" for studying general questions, like "how does a neuron regulate the synthesis, packaging, and secretion of its product?" and "how is information encoded in electrical activity?"
, as do corticosteroids secreted from the adrenal gland
under the influence of ACTH. The study of these feedbacks became the province of neuroendocrinologists. The peptides secreted by hypothalamic neuroendocrine neurons into the blood proved to be released also into the brain, and the central actions often appeared to complement the peripheral actions. So understanding these central actions also became the province of neuroendocrinologists, sometimes even when these peptides cropped up in quite different parts of the brain that appeared to serve functions unrelated to endocrine regulation. Neuroendocrine neurons were discovered in the peripheral nervous system
, regulating, for instance, digestion
. The cells in the adrenal medulla
that release adrenaline and noradrenaline proved to have properties between endocrine cells and neurons, and proved to be outstanding model systems for instance for the study of the molecular mechanisms of exocytosis
. And these, too, have become, by extension, neuroendocrine systems.
Neuroendocrine systems have been important to our understanding of many basic principles in neuroscience
and physiology
, for instance, our understanding of stimulus-secretion coupling. The origins and significance of patterning in neuroendocrine secretion are still dominant themes in neuroendocrinology today.
Neuroendocrinology is also used as an integral part of understanding and treating neurobiological brain disorders. One example is the augmentation of the treatment of mood symptoms with thyroid hormone. Another is the finding of a Transthyretin
(Thyroxine transport) problem in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of some patients diagnosed with schizophrenia.
Nervous system
The nervous system is an organ system containing a network of specialized cells called neurons that coordinate the actions of an animal and transmit signals between different parts of its body. In most animals the nervous system consists of two parts, central and peripheral. The central nervous...
and the endocrine system
Endocrine system
In physiology, the endocrine system is a system of glands, each of which secretes a type of hormone directly into the bloodstream to regulate the body. The endocrine system is in contrast to the exocrine system, which secretes its chemicals using ducts. It derives from the Greek words "endo"...
, including the biological features of the cells that participate, and how they functionally communicate. Neuroendocrinology arose from the recognition that the brain, especially the hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
The Hypothalamus is a portion of the brain that contains a number of small nuclei with a variety of functions...
, controls secretion of pituitary gland
Pituitary gland
In vertebrate anatomy the pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an endocrine gland about the size of a pea and weighing 0.5 g , in humans. It is a protrusion off the bottom of the hypothalamus at the base of the brain, and rests in a small, bony cavity covered by a dural fold...
hormone
Hormone
A hormone is a chemical released by a cell or a gland in one part of the body that sends out messages that affect cells in other parts of the organism. Only a small amount of hormone is required to alter cell metabolism. In essence, it is a chemical messenger that transports a signal from one...
s, and has subsequently expanded to investigate numerous interconnections of the endocrine and nervous systems.
Pioneers
Ernst and Berta ScharrerBerta Scharrer
Berta Vogel Scharrer was a German-born American scientist who helped to found the scientific discipline now known as neuroendocrinology.-Legacy:...
(1906-1995), of the University of Munich, and a professor at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Albert Einstein College of Medicine
Albert Einstein College of Medicine is a graduate school of Yeshiva University. It is a not-for-profit, private, nonsectarian medical school located on the Jack and Pearl Resnick Campus in the Morris Park neighborhood of the borough of the Bronx of New York City...
co-founded the field of neuroendocrinology with their initial observations and proposals concerning neuropeptide
Neuropeptide
Neuropeptides are small protein-like molecules used by neurons to communicate with each other. They are neuronal signaling molecules, influence the activity of the brain in specific ways and are thus involved in particular brain functions, like analgesia, reward, food intake, learning and...
s.
Geoffrey Harris (1913-1971) is considered by many to be the "father" of neuroendocrinology. Geoffrey Harris, the Dr. Lee's Professor of Anatomy at Oxford University is credited with showing that the anterior pituitary gland of mammals is regulated by factors secreted by hypothalamic neuron
Neuron
A neuron is an electrically excitable cell that processes and transmits information by electrical and chemical signaling. Chemical signaling occurs via synapses, specialized connections with other cells. Neurons connect to each other to form networks. Neurons are the core components of the nervous...
s into the hypothalamohypophysial portal circulation. By contrast, the hormones of the posterior pituitary gland are secreted into the systemic circulation
Systemic circulation
Systemic circulation is the part of the cardiovascular system which carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body, and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart. This physiologic theory of circulation was first described by William Harvey...
directly from the nerve endings of hypothalamic neurons.
The first of these factors to be identified are thyrotropin-releasing hormone
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone
Thyrotropin-releasing hormone , also called thyrotropin-releasing factor , thyroliberin or protirelin, is a tropic tripeptide hormone that stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone and prolactin by the anterior pituitary...
(TRH) and gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone , also known as Luteinizing-hormone-releasing hormone and luliberin, is a tropic peptide hormone responsible for the release of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary. GnRH is synthesized and released from neurons within...
(GnRH). TRH is a small peptide
Peptide
Peptides are short polymers of amino acid monomers linked by peptide bonds. They are distinguished from proteins on the basis of size, typically containing less than 50 monomer units. The shortest peptides are dipeptides, consisting of two amino acids joined by a single peptide bond...
that stimulates the secretion
Secretion
Secretion is the process of elaborating, releasing, and oozing chemicals, or a secreted chemical substance from a cell or gland. In contrast to excretion, the substance may have a certain function, rather than being a waste product...
of thyroid-stimulating hormone
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Thyrotrophin-stimulating hormone is a peptide hormone synthesized and secreted by thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland, which regulates the endocrine function of the thyroid gland.- Physiology :...
(TSH); GnRH (also called luteinising hormone-releasing hormone, LHRH) stimulates the secretion of luteinizing hormone
Luteinizing hormone
Luteinizing hormone is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland. In females, an acute rise of LH called the LH surge triggers ovulation and development of the corpus luteum. In males, where LH had also been called interstitial cell-stimulating hormone , it stimulates Leydig cell...
and follicle-stimulating hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone is a hormone found in humans and other animals. It is synthesized and secreted by gonadotrophs of the anterior pituitary gland. FSH regulates the development, growth, pubertal maturation, and reproductive processes of the body. FSH and Luteinizing hormone act...
(FSH).
Roger Guillemin
Roger Guillemin
Roger Charles Louis Guillemin received the National Medal of Science in 1976, and the Nobel prize for medicine in 1977 for his work on neurohormones, sharing the prize that year with Andrew Schally and Rosalyn Sussman Yalow.Completing his undergraduate work at the University of Burgundy, Guillemin...
, a medical student of Faculté de Médecine of Lyon and Andrew W. Schally of Tulane University
Tulane University
Tulane University is a private, nonsectarian research university located in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States...
isolated these factors from the hypothalamus of sheep and pigs, and then identified their structures. Guillemin and Schally were awarded the Nobel Prize
Nobel Prize
The Nobel Prizes are annual international awards bestowed by Scandinavian committees in recognition of cultural and scientific advances. The will of the Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite, established the prizes in 1895...
in Physiology and Medicine in 1977 for their contributions to understanding "the peptide hormone production of the brain."
In 1952, Andor Szentivanyi of the University of South Florida
University of South Florida
The University of South Florida, also known as USF, is a member institution of the State University System of Florida, one of the state's three flagship universities for public research, and is located in Tampa, Florida, USA...
and Geza Filipp wrote the world's first research paper showing how neural control of immunity takes place through the hypothalamus.
Hypothalamus
The endocrine system consists of numerous glands throughout the body that produce and secrete hormones of diverse chemical structure, including peptides, steroids, and neuroaminesAmine
Amines are organic compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are derivatives of ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group. Important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines,...
. Collectively, hormones regulate many physiological processes.
Oxytocin
Oxytocin
Oxytocin is a mammalian hormone that acts primarily as a neuromodulator in the brain.Oxytocin is best known for its roles in sexual reproduction, in particular during and after childbirth...
and vasopressin
Vasopressin
Arginine vasopressin , also known as vasopressin, argipressin or antidiuretic hormone , is a neurohypophysial hormone found in most mammals, including humans. Vasopressin is a peptide hormone that controls the reabsorption of molecules in the tubules of the kidneys by affecting the tissue's...
/anti-diuretic hormone, the two peptide hormones of the posterior pituitary gland (the neurohypophysis), are secreted from the nerve endings of magnocellular neurosecretory neurons into the systemic circulation. The cell bodies of these oxytocin and vasopressin neurons are in the paraventricular nucleus
Paraventricular nucleus
The paraventricular nucleus is a neuronal nucleus in the hypothalamus. It contains multiple subpopulations of neurons that are activated by a variety of stressful and/or physiological changes. Many PVN neurons project directly to the posterior pituitary where they release oxytocin or vasopressin...
and supraoptic nucleus
Supraoptic nucleus
The supraoptic nucleus is a nucleus of magnocellular neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus of the mammalian brain. The nucleus is situated at the base of the brain, adjacent to the optic chiasm...
, respectively, and the electrical activity of these neurons is regulated by afferent synaptic inputs from other brain regions. By contrast, the hormones of the anterior pituitary gland (the adenohypophysis) are secreted from endocrine cells that, in mammals, are not directly innervated, yet the secretion of these hormones (adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH), luteinizing hormone
Luteinizing hormone
Luteinizing hormone is a hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland. In females, an acute rise of LH called the LH surge triggers ovulation and development of the corpus luteum. In males, where LH had also been called interstitial cell-stimulating hormone , it stimulates Leydig cell...
(LH), follicle-stimulating hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone is a hormone found in humans and other animals. It is synthesized and secreted by gonadotrophs of the anterior pituitary gland. FSH regulates the development, growth, pubertal maturation, and reproductive processes of the body. FSH and Luteinizing hormone act...
(FSH), thyroid-stimulating hormone
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Thyrotrophin-stimulating hormone is a peptide hormone synthesized and secreted by thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland, which regulates the endocrine function of the thyroid gland.- Physiology :...
(TSH), prolactin
Prolactin
Prolactin also known as luteotropic hormone is a protein that in humans is encoded by the PRL gene.Prolactin is a peptide hormone discovered by Henry Friesen...
and growth hormone
Growth hormone
Growth hormone is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction and regeneration in humans and other animals. Growth hormone is a 191-amino acid, single-chain polypeptide that is synthesized, stored, and secreted by the somatotroph cells within the lateral wings of the anterior...
) remains under the control of the brain. The brain controls the anterior pituitary gland by releasing factors and release-inhibiting factors; these are blood-borne substances released by hypothalamic neurons into blood vessels at the base of the brain, at the median eminence
Median eminence
The median eminence is part of the inferior boundary for the hypothalamus part of the human brain. A small swelling on the tuber cinereum posterior to the infundibulum - atop the pituitary stalk - the median eminence lies in the area roughly bounded on its posterolateral region by the cerebral...
. These vessels, the hypothalamo-hypophysial portal vessels, carry the hypothalamic factors to the adenohypophysis
Anterior pituitary
A major organ of the endocrine system, the anterior pituitary, also called the adenohypophysis, is the glandular, anterior lobe of the pituitary gland...
, where they bind to specific receptors on the surface of the hormone-producing cells.
For example, the secretion of growth hormone is controlled by two neuroendocrine systems: the growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) neurons and the somatostatin
Somatostatin
Somatostatin is a peptide hormone that regulates the endocrine system and affects neurotransmission and cell proliferation via interaction with G-protein-coupled somatostatin receptors and inhibition of the release of numerous secondary hormones.Somatostatin...
neurons, which stimulate and inhibit GH secretion, respectively. The GHRH neurones are located in the arcuate nucleus
Arcuate nucleus
The arcuate nucleus is an aggregation of neurons in the mediobasal hypothalamus, adjacent to the third ventricle and the median eminence...
of the hypothalamus, whereas the somatostatin cells involved in growth hormone regulation are in the periventricular nucleus
Periventricular nucleus
The Periventricular nucleus is a thin sheet of small neurons located in the wall of the third ventricle, a composite structure of the hypothalamus. Functions in analgesia....
. These two neuronal systems project axons to the median eminence, where they release their peptides into portal blood vessels for transport to the anterior pituitary. Growth hormone is secreted in pulses, which arise from alternating episodes of GHRH release and somatostatin release, which may reflect neuronal interactions between the GHRH and somatostatin cells, and negative feedback from growth hormone.
These systems are of great interest to both physiologists and neuroscientists for a variety of reasons. First, neuroendocrine systems control reproduction in all its aspects, from bonding to sexual behavior. They control spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis is the process by which male primary germ cells undergo division, and produce a number of cells termed spermatogonia, from which the primary spermatocytes are derived. Each primary spermatocyte divides into two secondary spermatocytes, and each secondary spermatocyte into two...
and the ovarian cycle, parturition, lactation
Lactation
Lactation describes the secretion of milk from the mammary glands and the period of time that a mother lactates to feed her young. The process occurs in all female mammals, however it predates mammals. In humans the process of feeding milk is called breastfeeding or nursing...
, and maternal behaviour
Maternal bond
The maternal bond is typically the relationship between a mother and her child.While it typically occurs due to pregnancy and childbirth, it may also occur between a woman and an unrelated child, such as in adoption...
. They control the body's response to stress
Stress (medicine)
Stress is a term in psychology and biology, borrowed from physics and engineering and first used in the biological context in the 1930s, which has in more recent decades become commonly used in popular parlance...
and infection
Infection
An infection is the colonization of a host organism by parasite species. Infecting parasites seek to use the host's resources to reproduce, often resulting in disease...
. They regulate the body's metabolism
Metabolism
Metabolism is the set of chemical reactions that happen in the cells of living organisms to sustain life. These processes allow organisms to grow and reproduce, maintain their structures, and respond to their environments. Metabolism is usually divided into two categories...
, influencing eating and drinking behaviour, and influence how energy intake is utilised, that is, how fat is metabolized. They influence and regulate mood, body fluid and electrolyte homeostasis, and blood pressure
Blood pressure
Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by circulating blood upon the walls of blood vessels, and is one of the principal vital signs. When used without further specification, "blood pressure" usually refers to the arterial pressure of the systemic circulation. During each heartbeat, BP varies...
. Therefore, essential in gaining understanding of the issues at the core of many of today's health concerns is to understand the neuroendocrine system.
Second, the neurons of the neuroendocrine system are large; they are mini factories for producing secretory products; their nerve terminal are large and organised in coherent terminal fields; their output can often be measured easily in the blood; and what these neurons do and what stimuli they respond to are readily open to hypothesis and experiment. Hence, neuroendocrine neurons are good "model systems" for studying general questions, like "how does a neuron regulate the synthesis, packaging, and secretion of its product?" and "how is information encoded in electrical activity?"
Modern scope
Today, neuroendocrinology embraces a wide range of topics that arose directly or indirectly from the core concept of neuroendocrine neurons. Neuroendocrine neurones control the gonads, whose steroids, in turn, influence the brainBrain
The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...
, as do corticosteroids secreted from the adrenal gland
Adrenal gland
In mammals, the adrenal glands are endocrine glands that sit atop the kidneys; in humans, the right suprarenal gland is triangular shaped, while the left suprarenal gland is semilunar shaped...
under the influence of ACTH. The study of these feedbacks became the province of neuroendocrinologists. The peptides secreted by hypothalamic neuroendocrine neurons into the blood proved to be released also into the brain, and the central actions often appeared to complement the peripheral actions. So understanding these central actions also became the province of neuroendocrinologists, sometimes even when these peptides cropped up in quite different parts of the brain that appeared to serve functions unrelated to endocrine regulation. Neuroendocrine neurons were discovered in the peripheral nervous system
Peripheral nervous system
The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord. The main function of the PNS is to connect the central nervous system to the limbs and organs. Unlike the CNS, the PNS is not protected by the bone of spine and skull, or by the blood–brain...
, regulating, for instance, digestion
Digestion
Digestion is the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into smaller components that are more easily absorbed into a blood stream, for instance. Digestion is a form of catabolism: a breakdown of large food molecules to smaller ones....
. The cells in the adrenal medulla
Adrenal medulla
The adrenal medulla is part of the adrenal gland. It is located at the center of the gland, being surrounded by the adrenal cortex. It is the innermost part of the adrenal gland, consisting of cells that secrete epinephrine , norepinephrine , and a small amount of dopamine in response to...
that release adrenaline and noradrenaline proved to have properties between endocrine cells and neurons, and proved to be outstanding model systems for instance for the study of the molecular mechanisms of exocytosis
Exocytosis
Exocytosis , also known as 'The peni-cytosis', is the durable process by which a cell directs the contents of secretory vesicles out of the cell membrane...
. And these, too, have become, by extension, neuroendocrine systems.
Neuroendocrine systems have been important to our understanding of many basic principles in neuroscience
Neuroscience
Neuroscience is the scientific study of the nervous system. Traditionally, neuroscience has been seen as a branch of biology. However, it is currently an interdisciplinary science that collaborates with other fields such as chemistry, computer science, engineering, linguistics, mathematics,...
and physiology
Physiology
Physiology is the science of the function of living systems. This includes how organisms, organ systems, organs, cells, and bio-molecules carry out the chemical or physical functions that exist in a living system. The highest honor awarded in physiology is the Nobel Prize in Physiology or...
, for instance, our understanding of stimulus-secretion coupling. The origins and significance of patterning in neuroendocrine secretion are still dominant themes in neuroendocrinology today.
Neuroendocrinology is also used as an integral part of understanding and treating neurobiological brain disorders. One example is the augmentation of the treatment of mood symptoms with thyroid hormone. Another is the finding of a Transthyretin
Transthyretin
Transthyretin is a serum and cerebrospinal fluid carrier of the thyroid hormone thyroxine and retinol binding protein bound to retinol. This is how transthyretin gained its name, transports thyroxine and retinol...
(Thyroxine transport) problem in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of some patients diagnosed with schizophrenia.
Neuro-endocrine societies
- International Neuroendocrine Federation http://www.isneuro.org/
- European Neuroendocrine Association
- American Neuroendocrine Society http://www.neuroendocrine.org/
- British Society for Neuroendocrinology http://neuroendo.org.uk/
- La Societe de Neuroendocrinologie http://www.tours.inra.fr/societeneuroendocrino/
- European Neuroendocrine Association http://www.eneassoc.org/
- Japan Neuroendocrine Society http://www.nacos.com/jns/
- Society for Behavioral NeuroendocrinologySociety for Behavioral NeuroendocrinologyThe Society for Behavioral Neuroendocrinology is an interdisciplinary scientific organization dedicated to the study of hormonal processes and neuroendocrine systems that regulate behavior.- Publications :...
Neuroendocrine journals
- Stress: The International Journal on the Biology of StressStress (journal)Stress is a peer-reviewed medical journal covering interdisciplinary aspects of stress in terms of: the mechanisms of stressful stimulation, the physiological and behavioural responses to stress, and their regulation, in both the short and long term; adaptive mechanisms, coping strategies and the...
http://www.informaworld.com/gstr an official Journal of the International Neuroendocrine Federation - Journal of NeuroendocrinologyJournal of NeuroendocrinologyThe Journal of Neuroendocrinology, first publishedin 1989 is an academic journal that mainly publishes reports of original research in the field of neuroendocrinology, along with occasional review articles; it claims to provide “the principal international focus for the newest ideas in classical...
- Neuro-endocrinology http://content.karger.com/ProdukteDB/produkte.asp?Aktion=JournalHome&ProduktNr=223855&ContentOnly=false (Karger)
- Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology http://www.academicpress.com/fine/ (Academic Press)
- Hormones and Behavior http://www.academicpress.com/h&b/ (Academic Press)
- Neuroendocrinology Letters http://www.nel.edu/home.htm (Maghira and Maas Publications)