Neural tube defects
Encyclopedia
Neural tube defects are one of the most common birth defects, occurring in approximately one in 1,000 live births in the United States. An NTD is an opening in the spinal cord
or brain
that occurs very early in human development. In the 2nd week of pregnancy called gastrulation
, specialized cells on the dorsal side of the fetus begin to fuse and form the neural tube. When the neural tube
does not close completely, an NTD develops.
, encephalocele
s, hydranencephaly
, iniencephaly
, schizencephaly
,and spina bifida
. Rarer types of NTDs are called closed NTDs. Closed NTDs occur when the spinal defect is covered by skin. Common examples of closed NTDs are lipomyelomeningocele, lipomeningocele, and tethered cord.
(without brain) is a neural tube defect that occurs when the head end of the neural tube fails to close, usually during the 23rd and 26th days of pregnancy, resulting in an absence of a major portion of the brain and skull. Infants born with this condition are born without the main part of the forebrain-the largest part of the cerebrum. Infants born with this condition are usually blind, deaf and unconscious. The lack of a functioning cerebrum will ensure that the infant will never gain consciousness. Infants are either stillborn or usually die within a few hours or days after birth.
is a condition in which the cerebral hemispheres are missing and instead filled with sacs of cerebrospinal fluid.
is a rare neural tube defect that results in extreme bending of the head to the spine. The diagnosis can usually be made on antenatal ultrasound scanning but if not will undoubtedly be made immediately after birth because the head is bent backwards and the face looks upwards. Usually the neck is absent. The skin of the face connects directly to the chest and the scalp connect to the upper back. The infant usually will not survive more than a few hours.
is further divided into two subclasses, spina bifida cystica and spina bifida occulta.
), maternal diabetes, maternal obesity, mycotoxins in contaminated corn meal, arsenic
, hyperthermia
in early development, and radiation. Studies have shown that both maternal cigarette smoking and maternal exposure to secondhand smoke increased the risk for neural tube defects in offspring. A mechanism by which maternal exposure to cigarette smoke could increase NTD risk in offspring is suggested by several studies which show an association between cigarette smoking and homocysteine levels. The study suggests that cigarette smoke including secondhand exposure is not only hazardous to the mother but may also interfere with neural tube closure in the developing embryo.
and measurement of maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (MSAFP
). Amniotic fluid alpha-fetoprotein (AFAFP) and amniotic fluid acetylcholinesterase (AFAChE) tests are also used to confirming if ultrasound screening indicates a positive risk. Often, these defects are apparent at birth, but occult defects may be not diagnosed until much later in life. An elevated MSAFP measured at 16–18 weeks gestation is a good predictor of neural tube defects.
published regulations requiring the addition of folic acid to enriched breads, cereals, flour and other grain products. It is important to note that during the first four weeks of pregnancy (when most women do not even realize that they are pregnant), adequate folic intake is essential for proper operation of the neurulation
process. Therefore, women who could become pregnant are advised to eat foods fortified with folic acid or take supplements in addition to eating folate-rich foods to reduce the risks of serious birth defects.
In Canada, mandatory fortification of selected foods with folic acid has been shown to reduce the incidence of neural tube defects by 46%.
Women who could become pregnant are advised to get 400 micrograms of folic acid daily. Women who are pregnant should receive 1.0 mg daily, and women who have previously given birth to a child with a neural tube defect should get 4.0mg/5.0mg in the UK mg daily.
However, scientists reported in 2011 three genetic mutants which responded adversely to folic acid supplementation.
Spinal cord
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nervous tissue and support cells that extends from the brain . The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system...
or brain
Brain
The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...
that occurs very early in human development. In the 2nd week of pregnancy called gastrulation
Gastrulation
Gastrulation is a phase early in the embryonic development of most animals, during which the single-layered blastula is reorganized into a trilaminar structure known as the gastrula. These three germ layers are known as the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.Gastrulation takes place after cleavage...
, specialized cells on the dorsal side of the fetus begin to fuse and form the neural tube. When the neural tube
Neural tube
In the developing vertebrate, the neural tube is the embryo's precursor to the central nervous system, which comprises the brain and spinal cord...
does not close completely, an NTD develops.
Types of NTDs
There are two types of NTDs: open, which are more common, and closed. Open NTDs occur when the brain and/or spinal cord are exposed at birth through a defect in the skull or vertebrae (back bones). Examples of open NTDs are anencephalyAnencephaly
Anencephaly is a cephalic disorder that results from a neural tube defect that occurs when the cephalic end of the neural tube fails to close, usually between the 23rd and 26th day of pregnancy, resulting in the absence of a major portion of the brain, skull, and scalp...
, encephalocele
Encephalocele
Encephalocele, sometimes known by the Latin name cranium bifidum, is a neural tube defect characterized by sac-like protrusions of the brain and the membranes that cover it through openings in the skull. These defects are caused by failure of the neural tube to close completely during fetal...
s, hydranencephaly
Hydranencephaly
Hydranencephaly, synonym hydroanencephaly, is a type of cephalic disorder.These disorders are congenital conditions that derive from either damage to, or abnormal development of, the fetal nervous system in the earliest stages of development in utero...
, iniencephaly
Iniencephaly
Iniencephaly is a type of cephalic disorder. It is a rare neural tube defect that combines extreme retroflexion of the head with severe defects of the spine.-Presentation:...
, schizencephaly
Schizencephaly
Schizencephaly is a rare grey matter malformation of the brain. It belongs to the group of malformations of the central nervous system.-Presentation:...
,and spina bifida
Spina bifida
Spina bifida is a developmental congenital disorder caused by the incomplete closing of the embryonic neural tube. Some vertebrae overlying the spinal cord are not fully formed and remain unfused and open. If the opening is large enough, this allows a portion of the spinal cord to protrude through...
. Rarer types of NTDs are called closed NTDs. Closed NTDs occur when the spinal defect is covered by skin. Common examples of closed NTDs are lipomyelomeningocele, lipomeningocele, and tethered cord.
Anencephaly
AnencephalyAnencephaly
Anencephaly is a cephalic disorder that results from a neural tube defect that occurs when the cephalic end of the neural tube fails to close, usually between the 23rd and 26th day of pregnancy, resulting in the absence of a major portion of the brain, skull, and scalp...
(without brain) is a neural tube defect that occurs when the head end of the neural tube fails to close, usually during the 23rd and 26th days of pregnancy, resulting in an absence of a major portion of the brain and skull. Infants born with this condition are born without the main part of the forebrain-the largest part of the cerebrum. Infants born with this condition are usually blind, deaf and unconscious. The lack of a functioning cerebrum will ensure that the infant will never gain consciousness. Infants are either stillborn or usually die within a few hours or days after birth.
Hydranencephaly
HydranencephalyHydranencephaly
Hydranencephaly, synonym hydroanencephaly, is a type of cephalic disorder.These disorders are congenital conditions that derive from either damage to, or abnormal development of, the fetal nervous system in the earliest stages of development in utero...
is a condition in which the cerebral hemispheres are missing and instead filled with sacs of cerebrospinal fluid.
Iniencephaly
IniencephalyIniencephaly
Iniencephaly is a type of cephalic disorder. It is a rare neural tube defect that combines extreme retroflexion of the head with severe defects of the spine.-Presentation:...
is a rare neural tube defect that results in extreme bending of the head to the spine. The diagnosis can usually be made on antenatal ultrasound scanning but if not will undoubtedly be made immediately after birth because the head is bent backwards and the face looks upwards. Usually the neck is absent. The skin of the face connects directly to the chest and the scalp connect to the upper back. The infant usually will not survive more than a few hours.
Spina bifida
Spina bifidaSpina bifida
Spina bifida is a developmental congenital disorder caused by the incomplete closing of the embryonic neural tube. Some vertebrae overlying the spinal cord are not fully formed and remain unfused and open. If the opening is large enough, this allows a portion of the spinal cord to protrude through...
is further divided into two subclasses, spina bifida cystica and spina bifida occulta.
Spina bifida cystica
This includes meningocele and myelomeningocele. Meningocele is less severe and is characterized by herniation of the meninges, but not the spinal cord, through the opening in the spinal canal. Myeolomeningocele involves herniation of the meninges as well as the spinal cord through the opening.Spina bifida occulta
In this type of neural tube defect, the meninges do not herniate through the opening in the spinal canal. It is a common condition, occurring in 10%-20% of otherwise healthy people. By definition, spina bifida occulta means hidden split spine. The most frequently seen form of spina bifida occulta is when parts of the bones of the spine called the spinous process and neural arch appear abnormal on a radiogram, and is generally harmless. Usually the spinal cord and spinal nerves are not involved. The risk of recurrence in those who have a first degree relative (eg. parent, sibling) is 5–10 times greater than that in the general population. The genetic risk of recurrence with symptomatic forms of Spina Bifida Occulta is uncertain.Folic acid pathway
Folic acid and vitamin B12 are very important in reducing the occurrences of NTDs. Folate is required for production and maintenance of new cells, for DNA synthesis and RNA synthesis. Folate is needed to carry one carbon groups for methylation and nucleic acid synthesis. Vitamin B12 is also an important receptor in the folic acid biopathway such that studies have shown deficiency in vitamin B12 contributes to risk of NTDs as well.Other Causes
Other potential causes can include folate antimetabolites (such as methotrexateMethotrexate
Methotrexate , abbreviated MTX and formerly known as amethopterin, is an antimetabolite and antifolate drug. It is used in treatment of cancer, autoimmune diseases, ectopic pregnancy, and for the induction of medical abortions. It acts by inhibiting the metabolism of folic acid. Methotrexate...
), maternal diabetes, maternal obesity, mycotoxins in contaminated corn meal, arsenic
Arsenic
Arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol As, atomic number 33 and relative atomic mass 74.92. Arsenic occurs in many minerals, usually in conjunction with sulfur and metals, and also as a pure elemental crystal. It was first documented by Albertus Magnus in 1250.Arsenic is a metalloid...
, hyperthermia
Hyperthermia
Hyperthermia is an elevated body temperature due to failed thermoregulation. Hyperthermia occurs when the body produces or absorbs more heat than it can dissipate...
in early development, and radiation. Studies have shown that both maternal cigarette smoking and maternal exposure to secondhand smoke increased the risk for neural tube defects in offspring. A mechanism by which maternal exposure to cigarette smoke could increase NTD risk in offspring is suggested by several studies which show an association between cigarette smoking and homocysteine levels. The study suggests that cigarette smoke including secondhand exposure is not only hazardous to the mother but may also interfere with neural tube closure in the developing embryo.
Detection
Tests for neural tube defects include ultrasound examinationTriple test
The triple test, also called triple screen, the Kettering test or the Bart's test, is an investigation performed during pregnancy in the second trimester to classify a patient as either high-risk or low-risk for chromosomal abnormalities .The term "multiple-marker screening test" is sometimes used...
and measurement of maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein (MSAFP
Alpha-fetoprotein
Alpha-fetoprotein is a protein that in humans is encoded by the AFP gene....
). Amniotic fluid alpha-fetoprotein (AFAFP) and amniotic fluid acetylcholinesterase (AFAChE) tests are also used to confirming if ultrasound screening indicates a positive risk. Often, these defects are apparent at birth, but occult defects may be not diagnosed until much later in life. An elevated MSAFP measured at 16–18 weeks gestation is a good predictor of neural tube defects.
Prevention
In 1996, the United States Food and Drug AdministrationFood and Drug Administration
The Food and Drug Administration is an agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments...
published regulations requiring the addition of folic acid to enriched breads, cereals, flour and other grain products. It is important to note that during the first four weeks of pregnancy (when most women do not even realize that they are pregnant), adequate folic intake is essential for proper operation of the neurulation
Neurulation
Neurulation is the stage of organogenesis in vertebrate embryos, during which the neural tube is transformed into the primitive structures that will later develop into the central nervous system....
process. Therefore, women who could become pregnant are advised to eat foods fortified with folic acid or take supplements in addition to eating folate-rich foods to reduce the risks of serious birth defects.
In Canada, mandatory fortification of selected foods with folic acid has been shown to reduce the incidence of neural tube defects by 46%.
Women who could become pregnant are advised to get 400 micrograms of folic acid daily. Women who are pregnant should receive 1.0 mg daily, and women who have previously given birth to a child with a neural tube defect should get 4.0mg/5.0mg in the UK mg daily.
However, scientists reported in 2011 three genetic mutants which responded adversely to folic acid supplementation.
Treatment
Treatments of NTDs depends on the severity of the complication. No treatment is available for anencephaly because the infants usually do not survive more than a few hours. Aggressive surgical management has improved survival and functions of infants with spina bifida and meningoceles and mild myelomeningoceles. The success of surgery often depends on the amount of brain tissue involved in the encephalocele. The goal of treatment for NTDs is to allow the individual to achieve the highest level of function and independence.External links
- Neural Tube Defects : Medchrome
- MedlinePlus
- St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center Fetal Care Center
- Monica - a case study of a young woman born with a neural tube defect