Models of abnormality
Encyclopedia
Models of Abnormality are general hypotheses as to the nature of psychological abnormalities
. The four main models to explain psychological abnormality are the Biological
, Behavioural, Cognitive, and Psychodynamic models. They all attempt to explain the causes and cures for all psychological illness
es, and all from a different approach.
(the only model not based on psychological principles) is based on the assumptions that if the brain
, neuroanatomy
and related biochemicals are all physical entities and work together to mediate psychological processes, then treating any mental abnormality must be physical/biological. Part of this theory stems from much research into the major neurotransmitter
, Serotonin
, which seems to show that major psychological illnesses such as bipolar disorder
and anorexia nervosa
are caused by abnormally reduced levels of Serotonin in the brain.(1) The model also suggests that psychological illness could and should be treated like any physical illness (being caused by chemical imbalance, microbes or physical stress) and hence can be treated with surgery
or drugs
. Electroconvulsive therapy
has also proved to be a successful short-term treatment for depressive symptoms of bipolar disorder and related illnesses, although the reasons for its success are almost completely unknown. There is also evidence for a genetic factor in causing psychological illness.(2)(3). The main cures for psychological illness under this model: electroconvulsive therapy
, drugs and surgery at times can have very good results in restoring "normality" as biology
has been shown to play some sort of role in psychological illness. However they can also have consequences, whether biology is responsible or not, as drugs always have a chance of causing allergic reactions or addiction
. Electrotherapy can cause unnecessary stress and surgery can dull the personality, as the area of the brain responsible for emotion
(Hypothalmus) is often altered or even completely removed.
However Szasz (1972), pointed out that even more than physical illness, mental illness is something that people fear - largely because it is something they do not understand. In general, people do not know how to respond to someone diagnosed as mentally ill. There may also be fears that the person's behaviour might be unpredictable or potentially dangerous. Therefore, sympathy is more likely to give way to avoidance of the person, which in turn leads to the person feeling shunned.
A huge amount of research has been carried out within the framework of the medical model and this has greatly increased our understanding of the possible biological factors underpinning psychological disorders. However, much of the evidence is inconclusive and findings can be difficult to interpret. For example, in family studies, it is difficult to disentangle the effects of genetics from the effects of environment. It can also be difficult to establish cause and effect. For example raised levels of dopamine may be a consequence rather than a cause of schizophrenia.
Many psychologists criticise psychiatry for focusing its attention primarily on symptoms and for assuming that relieving symptoms with drugs cures the problem. Unfortunately, in many cases when the drug treatment is ceased the symptoms recur. This suggests that drugs are not addressing the true cause of the problem.
, where the stimulus
that provokes the dysfunctional behaviour is coupled with a second stimulus, with aims to produce a new reaction to the first stimulus based on the experiences of the second. Also systematic desensitization
can be used, especially where phobias are involved by using the phobia that currently causes the dysfunctional behaviour and coupling it with a phobia that produces a more intense reaction. This is meant to make the first phobia seem less fearsome etc. as it has been put in comparison with the second phobia. This model seems to have been quite successful, where phobias and compulsive disorders are concerned, but it doesn't focus on the cause of the illness or problem, and so risks recurrence
of the problem.
, Sigmund Freud
. It is based on the principles that psychological illness comes about from repressed emotions and thoughts from experiences in the past (usually childhood), and as a result of this repression
, alternative behaviour replaces what is being repressed. The patient is believed to be cured when they can admit that which is currently being repressed (4). The main cure for illnesses under this model is free association
where the patient is free to speak while the psychiatrist notes down and tries to interpret where the trouble areas are. There is little proof of why this model works, but it can be successful, especially where the patient feels comfortable to speak freely, and about issues that are relevant to a cure.
Abnormal psychology
Abnormal psychology is the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behavior, emotion and thought, which may or may not be understood as precipitating a mental disorder...
. The four main models to explain psychological abnormality are the Biological
Biology
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...
, Behavioural, Cognitive, and Psychodynamic models. They all attempt to explain the causes and cures for all psychological illness
Illness
Illness is a state of poor health. Illness is sometimes considered another word for disease. Others maintain that fine distinctions exist...
es, and all from a different approach.
The Biological (Medical) Model
The Biological Model of AbnormalityAbnormality (behavior)
Abnormality, in the vivid sense of something deviating from the normal or differing from the typical , is a subjectively defined behavioral characteristic, assigned to those with rare or dysfunctional conditions...
(the only model not based on psychological principles) is based on the assumptions that if the brain
Brain
The brain is the center of the nervous system in all vertebrate and most invertebrate animals—only a few primitive invertebrates such as sponges, jellyfish, sea squirts and starfishes do not have one. It is located in the head, usually close to primary sensory apparatus such as vision, hearing,...
, neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy
Neuroanatomy is the study of the anatomy and organization of the nervous system. In contrast to animals with radial symmetry, whose nervous system consists of a distributed network of cells, animals with bilateral symmetry have segregated, defined nervous systems, and thus we can begin to speak of...
and related biochemicals are all physical entities and work together to mediate psychological processes, then treating any mental abnormality must be physical/biological. Part of this theory stems from much research into the major neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that transmit signals from a neuron to a target cell across a synapse. Neurotransmitters are packaged into synaptic vesicles clustered beneath the membrane on the presynaptic side of a synapse, and are released into the synaptic cleft, where they bind to...
, Serotonin
Serotonin
Serotonin or 5-hydroxytryptamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Biochemically derived from tryptophan, serotonin is primarily found in the gastrointestinal tract, platelets, and in the central nervous system of animals including humans...
, which seems to show that major psychological illnesses such as bipolar disorder
Bipolar disorder
Bipolar disorder or bipolar affective disorder, historically known as manic–depressive disorder, is a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a category of mood disorders defined by the presence of one or more episodes of abnormally elevated energy levels, cognition, and mood with or without one or...
and anorexia nervosa
Anorexia nervosa
Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by refusal to maintain a healthy body weight and an obsessive fear of gaining weight. Although commonly called "anorexia", that term on its own denotes any symptomatic loss of appetite and is not strictly accurate...
are caused by abnormally reduced levels of Serotonin in the brain.(1) The model also suggests that psychological illness could and should be treated like any physical illness (being caused by chemical imbalance, microbes or physical stress) and hence can be treated with surgery
Surgery
Surgery is an ancient medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental techniques on a patient to investigate and/or treat a pathological condition such as disease or injury, or to help improve bodily function or appearance.An act of performing surgery may be called a surgical...
or drugs
DRUGS
Destroy Rebuild Until God Shows are an American post-hardcore band formed in 2010. They released their debut self-titled album on February 22, 2011.- Formation :...
. Electroconvulsive therapy
Electroconvulsive therapy
Electroconvulsive therapy , formerly known as electroshock, is a psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in anesthetized patients for therapeutic effect. Its mode of action is unknown...
has also proved to be a successful short-term treatment for depressive symptoms of bipolar disorder and related illnesses, although the reasons for its success are almost completely unknown. There is also evidence for a genetic factor in causing psychological illness.(2)(3). The main cures for psychological illness under this model: electroconvulsive therapy
Electroconvulsive therapy
Electroconvulsive therapy , formerly known as electroshock, is a psychiatric treatment in which seizures are electrically induced in anesthetized patients for therapeutic effect. Its mode of action is unknown...
, drugs and surgery at times can have very good results in restoring "normality" as biology
Biology
Biology is a natural science concerned with the study of life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy. Biology is a vast subject containing many subdivisions, topics, and disciplines...
has been shown to play some sort of role in psychological illness. However they can also have consequences, whether biology is responsible or not, as drugs always have a chance of causing allergic reactions or addiction
Substance dependence
The section about substance dependence in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders does not use the word addiction at all. It explains:...
. Electrotherapy can cause unnecessary stress and surgery can dull the personality, as the area of the brain responsible for emotion
Emotion
Emotion is a complex psychophysiological experience of an individual's state of mind as interacting with biochemical and environmental influences. In humans, emotion fundamentally involves "physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience." Emotion is associated with mood,...
(Hypothalmus) is often altered or even completely removed.
Evaluation of the Biological (Medical) Model
A diagnosis of mental 'illness' implies that a person is in no way responsible for the abnormality of functioning and as such is not to blame. The concept of 'no blame' is generally thought to be more humane and likely to elicit a much more sympathetic response from others.However Szasz (1972), pointed out that even more than physical illness, mental illness is something that people fear - largely because it is something they do not understand. In general, people do not know how to respond to someone diagnosed as mentally ill. There may also be fears that the person's behaviour might be unpredictable or potentially dangerous. Therefore, sympathy is more likely to give way to avoidance of the person, which in turn leads to the person feeling shunned.
A huge amount of research has been carried out within the framework of the medical model and this has greatly increased our understanding of the possible biological factors underpinning psychological disorders. However, much of the evidence is inconclusive and findings can be difficult to interpret. For example, in family studies, it is difficult to disentangle the effects of genetics from the effects of environment. It can also be difficult to establish cause and effect. For example raised levels of dopamine may be a consequence rather than a cause of schizophrenia.
Many psychologists criticise psychiatry for focusing its attention primarily on symptoms and for assuming that relieving symptoms with drugs cures the problem. Unfortunately, in many cases when the drug treatment is ceased the symptoms recur. This suggests that drugs are not addressing the true cause of the problem.
The Behavioural Model
The Behavioural Model to abnormality assumes that all maladaptive behaviour is essentially acquired through one's environment. Therefore, Psychiatrists practising the beliefs of this model would be to prioritise changing the behaviour over identifying the cause of the dysfunctional behaviour. The main solution to psychological illness under this model is aversion therapyAversion therapy
Aversion therapy is a form of psychological treatment in which the patient is exposed to a stimulus while simultaneously being subjected to some form of discomfort...
, where the stimulus
Stimulus (physiology)
In physiology, a stimulus is a detectable change in the internal or external environment. The ability of an organism or organ to respond to external stimuli is called sensitivity....
that provokes the dysfunctional behaviour is coupled with a second stimulus, with aims to produce a new reaction to the first stimulus based on the experiences of the second. Also systematic desensitization
Systematic desensitization
Systematic desensitization is a type of behavioral therapy used in the field of psychology to help effectively overcome phobias and other anxiety disorders. More specifically, it is a type of Pavlovian therapy / classical conditioning therapy developed by a South African psychiatrist, Joseph Wolpe...
can be used, especially where phobias are involved by using the phobia that currently causes the dysfunctional behaviour and coupling it with a phobia that produces a more intense reaction. This is meant to make the first phobia seem less fearsome etc. as it has been put in comparison with the second phobia. This model seems to have been quite successful, where phobias and compulsive disorders are concerned, but it doesn't focus on the cause of the illness or problem, and so risks recurrence
Recurrence
Recurrence and recurrent may refer to:*Recurrence relation, an equation which defines a sequence recursively*Poincaré recurrence theorem, Henri Poincaré's theorem on dynamical systems...
of the problem.
Evaluation of the Behavioural Model
The Behavioural Model overcomes the ethical issues raised by the medical model of labelling someone as 'ill' or 'abnormal'. Instead the model concentrates on behaviour and whether it is 'adaptive' or 'maladaptive'. The model also allows individual and cultural differences to be taken into account. Provided the behaviour is presenting no problems to the individual or to other people, then there is no need to regard the behaviour as a mental disorder. Those who support the psychodynamic model, however, claim the behavioural model focuses only on symptoms and ignores the causes of abnormal behaviour. They claim that the symptoms are merely the tip of the iceberg - the outward expression of deeper underlying emotional problems. Whenever symptoms are treated without any attempt to ascertain the deeper underlying problems, then the problem will only manifest itself in another way, through different symptoms. This is known as symptom substitution. Behaviourists reject this criticism and claim that we need not look beyond the behavioural symptoms as the symptoms are the disorder. Thus, there is nothing to be gained from searching for internal causes, either psychological or physical. Behaviourists point to the success of behavioural therapies in treating certain disorders. Others note the effects of such treatments are not always long lasting. Another criticism of the behavioural model are the ethical issues it raises. Some claim the therapies are dehumanising and unethical. For example, aversion therapy has been imposed on people without consent.The Cognitive Model
The Cognitive Model is quite similar to the Behavioural Model but with the main difference that, instead of teaching the patient to behave differently it teaches the patient to think differently. It is hoped that if the patient's feelings and emotions towards something are influenced to change, it will induce external behavioural change. Though similar in ways to the Behavioural Model, psychiatrists of this model use differing methods for cures. The main one is Rational Emotional Therapy (RET) and is based on the principle that an "activating" emotional event will cause a change in thoughts toward that situation, even if it is an illogical thought/s. So with this therapy, it is the psychiatrist's job to question and change the irrational thoughts. It is similar to the Behavioural Model where its success is concerned, as it has also proved to be quite successful in the treatment of compulsive disorders and phobias, although it doesn't deal with the cause of the problem directly, it does attempt to change the situation more broadly than the Behavioral Model.The Psychodynamic Model
The Psychodynamic Model is the fourth psychological model of abnormality, and is based on the work of the famous psychologistPsychologist
Psychologist is a professional or academic title used by individuals who are either:* Clinical professionals who work with patients in a variety of therapeutic contexts .* Scientists conducting psychological research or teaching psychology in a college...
, Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud , born Sigismund Schlomo Freud , was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis...
. It is based on the principles that psychological illness comes about from repressed emotions and thoughts from experiences in the past (usually childhood), and as a result of this repression
Psychological repression
Psychological repression, also psychic repression or simply repression, is the psychological attempt by an individual to repel one's own desires and impulses towards pleasurable instincts by excluding the desire from one's consciousness and holding or subduing it in the unconscious...
, alternative behaviour replaces what is being repressed. The patient is believed to be cured when they can admit that which is currently being repressed (4). The main cure for illnesses under this model is free association
Free association (psychology)
Free association is a technique used in psychoanalysis which was originally devised by Sigmund Freud out of the hypnotic method of his mentor and coworker, Josef Breuer....
where the patient is free to speak while the psychiatrist notes down and tries to interpret where the trouble areas are. There is little proof of why this model works, but it can be successful, especially where the patient feels comfortable to speak freely, and about issues that are relevant to a cure.