Missile Approach Warning
Encyclopedia
A Missile Approach Warning system is part of the avionics
package on some military aircraft. A sensor
detects attacking missiles. Its automatic warning cues the pilot to make a defensive maneuver and deploy the available countermeasure
s to disrupt missile tracking.
Guided Surface to Air Missile (SAM) systems were developed during World War II but only really started to make their presence felt in the 1950s. In response, electronic countermeasures
(ECM) and flying tactics were developed to overcome them. They proved to be quite successful provided that reliable and timely threat warning was given.
i.e. Infra Red (IR) guided missiles. This might appear surprising considering that radar guided SAM systems have longer engagement ranges, are faster, have higher maneuvering potential, carries larger warheads and are equipped with proximity fuses.
The main reason why IR guided missiles were so effective was that it took much longer to develop effective warning systems against them. Most aircraft that were shot down never knew that the missile(s) were coming. Radar warning receivers on the other hand already proved their effectiveness by the early 1970s which considerably improved the survival rate of aircraft against radar threats.
The first air to air IR missiles appeared in the 1950s. The technology allowed more compact missile designs and made it possible to develop IR Man Portable Air Defense Systems (MANPADS) i.e. shoulder launched missiles, which became operational by the 1960s.
IR MANPADS are relatively cheap, quite robust, easy to operate and difficult to detect. They also do not require the infrastructure often associated with radar guided SAM deployments which often reveals their presence.
Vast quantities MANPADS have been manufactured (more than 700,000 produced since 1970 according to CSIS "Transnational Threats Update" Volume 1. No 10. 2003). Large numbers proliferated during the Cold War and immediate post Cold War era. Substantial quantities are available and affordable on the black market and have found their way into the hands of "non state" organizations or the so called "asymmetric" threat. (An estimate by Jane's Intelligence Review of Feb 2003 puts this number as high as 150 000). An article "Proliferation of MANPADS and the Threat to Civil Aviation" of August 13, 2003 by Jane's Terrorism and Insurgency Centre estimates that the black market price of MANPADS like the SA-7 could be as low as $5,000 .
Intelligence regarding the whereabouts of MANPADS, especially in the hands of "non state" organizations, is usually vague and unreliable. This, in turn, makes it difficult to anticipate where and when to expect MANPADS attacks.
The 2nd and 3rd generation MANPADS appeared by the 1980s and further increased the performance and effectiveness of MANPADS due to advanced new seeker head technology, improved rocket motors and aerodynamic refinements. Their performance improved in terms of lethal range, minimum launch angle, maneuvering potential and all aspect engagement angles (1st generation MANPADS were restricted to only rear sector attacks). They also became more ECM
resistant.
MANPADS therefore became even more lethal specifically against more vulnerable platforms such as helicopters, light aircraft, and commercial and military transport aircraft (during approaches and departures). The slower speed of these platforms forces them to spend more time within the kill zones of MANPADS compared to high performance fighter and strike aircraft.
At least 35 MANPADS attacks on civilian aircraft are on record. Twenty four were shot down killing about 500 people in the process.
An exception to this are Omni Directional IR jammers which do not make use of missile warning at all as they simply radiate modulated IR energy for as long as they are switched on. These jammers have been around since the 1970s and when the correct jamming modulation techniques were applied, were reasonably effective against 1st generation amplitude modulated MANPADS which operated in the near-IR band (1 to 2 micrometre). The arrival of 2nd and 3rd generation MANPADS however changed that. They operate in the mid-IR band (3 to 5 micrometre) and make use of more advanced modulation techniques (for example frequency modulation). Therefore instead of jamming these missiles, the Omni Directional IR jammer now actually became a source for the missiles to home in.
MANPADS are relative short range weapons, typically up to about five kilometers with the heart of the kill envelope one to three kilometers. They therefore allow very little margin for error to effectively counter them as the time to impact (TTI) on a target at one kilometer, is only about three seconds. The TTI for targets at three and five kilometers is also relatively short – only seven to a little over eleven seconds respectively.
The MAW must therefore provide reliable and timely warning to allow appropriate counter measure responses. Near 100% probability of warning (POW) and very fast reaction times to counter nearby missile launches (in the order of one second) are therefore essential.
Air crew will only rely on the system if they have high confidence in it. The MAW must therefore also have low false alarm rates (FAR), even when engaged by multiple threats from different directions.
Quick response times and low FAR are however inherently conflicting requirements. An acceptable solution therefore requires a balanced approach to provide the most successful end result without compromising the POW.
Accurate azimuth and elevation angle of attack (AOA) information is another very important requirement. Directional IR Counter Measures (DIRCM) systems depend on MAW systems for accurate enough initial pointing (about two degrees) to ensure that the DIRCM acquires and engages incoming missiles timely and successfully.
Accurate AOA is also important in deciding the dispensing direction of the counter measure decoys (flares). It is vital to avoid the situation where the platform and the dispensed decoys both remain within the instantaneous field of view (IFoV) of incoming missiles. In situations like that missiles could very well, once they pass the decoys, still hit the platform. This is of particular importance where separation between the decoys and the platform takes too long as is the case with slow flying aircraft.
Accurate AOA is further important where the platform should preferably maneuver when dispensing decoys to increase the miss distance. This is however more applicable to fast jets where their high speed tends to negate the separation caused by the decoy's ejection velocity. A turn towards approaching missiles to establish/increase the angle between the decoy and the platform is especially important in cases where a missile approaches from the rear between the five or seven 'o clock sectors. If the AOA is not accurate enough, the pilot could very well turn in the wrong direction and set himself up for the situation as described above.
The system must also be fully automated as the human reaction time in relevant cases (short range launches) is too long.
To reduce the installation and integration costs, the necessary interfaces have to be provided to ensure communication and co-existence with other on-board avionics.
The integrated HMI must also indicate the system’s operating status, serviceability status, mode of operation, remaining decoy quantities etc. Separate control panels are only justified for safety of flight purposes such as ECM on/off and decoy jettison functions.
Direct costs involve the initial price of the system, spare parts as well as test equipment to ensure that the performance and availability of the systems is maintained throughout their entire life cycle.
Installing and integrating EW systems on aircraft is another direct cost
Indirect cost on the other hand involves degradation of the aircraft’s performance as a result of having the system on-board which in turn impacts negatively on the operating cost of the aircraft.
The lowest initial price of a system does therefore not necessary offer the best solution as all the factors needs to be considered. The overall cost effectiveness of systems i.e. price versus performance is more important in deciding which system to select.
based systems. Each technology has their advantages and shortcomings which can be summarized as follows:
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
Israel
Japan
Russia
UK
UK and Italy
USA
France
Germany
Germany and France
UK
USA
USA and Israel
Israel
Sweden/South Africa
USA
Avionics
Avionics are electronic systems used on aircraft, artificial satellites and spacecraft.Avionic systems include communications, navigation, the display and management of multiple systems and the hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to meet individual roles...
package on some military aircraft. A sensor
Sensor
A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. For example, a mercury-in-glass thermometer converts the measured temperature into expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated...
detects attacking missiles. Its automatic warning cues the pilot to make a defensive maneuver and deploy the available countermeasure
Countermeasure
A countermeasure is a measure or action taken to counter or offset another one. As a general concept it implies precision, and is any technological or tactical solution or system designed to prevent an undesirable outcome in the process...
s to disrupt missile tracking.
Guided Surface to Air Missile (SAM) systems were developed during World War II but only really started to make their presence felt in the 1950s. In response, electronic countermeasures
Electronic countermeasures
An electronic countermeasure is an electrical or electronic device designed to trick or deceive radar, sonar or other detection systems, like infrared or lasers. It may be used both offensively and defensively to deny targeting information to an enemy...
(ECM) and flying tactics were developed to overcome them. They proved to be quite successful provided that reliable and timely threat warning was given.
The infra red heat seeking missile threat
Analysis of aircraft losses due to enemy action since the 1960s shows that at least 70% of all losses were attributed to passive heat seekingInfrared homing
Infrared homing refers to a passive missile guidance system which uses the emission from a target of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum to track and follow it. Missiles which use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat-seekers", since infrared is just below the...
i.e. Infra Red (IR) guided missiles. This might appear surprising considering that radar guided SAM systems have longer engagement ranges, are faster, have higher maneuvering potential, carries larger warheads and are equipped with proximity fuses.
The main reason why IR guided missiles were so effective was that it took much longer to develop effective warning systems against them. Most aircraft that were shot down never knew that the missile(s) were coming. Radar warning receivers on the other hand already proved their effectiveness by the early 1970s which considerably improved the survival rate of aircraft against radar threats.
The first air to air IR missiles appeared in the 1950s. The technology allowed more compact missile designs and made it possible to develop IR Man Portable Air Defense Systems (MANPADS) i.e. shoulder launched missiles, which became operational by the 1960s.
IR MANPADS are relatively cheap, quite robust, easy to operate and difficult to detect. They also do not require the infrastructure often associated with radar guided SAM deployments which often reveals their presence.
Vast quantities MANPADS have been manufactured (more than 700,000 produced since 1970 according to CSIS "Transnational Threats Update" Volume 1. No 10. 2003). Large numbers proliferated during the Cold War and immediate post Cold War era. Substantial quantities are available and affordable on the black market and have found their way into the hands of "non state" organizations or the so called "asymmetric" threat. (An estimate by Jane's Intelligence Review of Feb 2003 puts this number as high as 150 000). An article "Proliferation of MANPADS and the Threat to Civil Aviation" of August 13, 2003 by Jane's Terrorism and Insurgency Centre estimates that the black market price of MANPADS like the SA-7 could be as low as $5,000 .
Intelligence regarding the whereabouts of MANPADS, especially in the hands of "non state" organizations, is usually vague and unreliable. This, in turn, makes it difficult to anticipate where and when to expect MANPADS attacks.
The 2nd and 3rd generation MANPADS appeared by the 1980s and further increased the performance and effectiveness of MANPADS due to advanced new seeker head technology, improved rocket motors and aerodynamic refinements. Their performance improved in terms of lethal range, minimum launch angle, maneuvering potential and all aspect engagement angles (1st generation MANPADS were restricted to only rear sector attacks). They also became more ECM
Electronic counter-countermeasures
Electronic counter-countermeasures is a part of electronic warfare which includes a variety of practices which attempt to reduce or eliminate the effect of electronic countermeasures on electronic sensors aboard vehicles, ships and aircraft and weapons such as missiles. ECCM is also known as...
resistant.
MANPADS therefore became even more lethal specifically against more vulnerable platforms such as helicopters, light aircraft, and commercial and military transport aircraft (during approaches and departures). The slower speed of these platforms forces them to spend more time within the kill zones of MANPADS compared to high performance fighter and strike aircraft.
At least 35 MANPADS attacks on civilian aircraft are on record. Twenty four were shot down killing about 500 people in the process.
Missile Approach Warning (MAW) system requirements
Protecting aircraft against IR guided missiles depends in most cases firstly on reliable detection and warning of missiles and secondly on applying effective ECM.An exception to this are Omni Directional IR jammers which do not make use of missile warning at all as they simply radiate modulated IR energy for as long as they are switched on. These jammers have been around since the 1970s and when the correct jamming modulation techniques were applied, were reasonably effective against 1st generation amplitude modulated MANPADS which operated in the near-IR band (1 to 2 micrometre). The arrival of 2nd and 3rd generation MANPADS however changed that. They operate in the mid-IR band (3 to 5 micrometre) and make use of more advanced modulation techniques (for example frequency modulation). Therefore instead of jamming these missiles, the Omni Directional IR jammer now actually became a source for the missiles to home in.
Functional requirements
Providing timely warning against IR MANPADS is a challenge. They give no warning of their presence prior to launch, they do not rely on active IR, radar guidance or a laser designator which would possibly emit a detectable Radiation. They are typically fire and forget and can lock on and engage a target, speed to the target and destroy it in seconds . They do however have a small but visible radar signature and also a propellant which burns - depending on the platform, typically for a very short duration.MANPADS are relative short range weapons, typically up to about five kilometers with the heart of the kill envelope one to three kilometers. They therefore allow very little margin for error to effectively counter them as the time to impact (TTI) on a target at one kilometer, is only about three seconds. The TTI for targets at three and five kilometers is also relatively short – only seven to a little over eleven seconds respectively.
The MAW must therefore provide reliable and timely warning to allow appropriate counter measure responses. Near 100% probability of warning (POW) and very fast reaction times to counter nearby missile launches (in the order of one second) are therefore essential.
Air crew will only rely on the system if they have high confidence in it. The MAW must therefore also have low false alarm rates (FAR), even when engaged by multiple threats from different directions.
Quick response times and low FAR are however inherently conflicting requirements. An acceptable solution therefore requires a balanced approach to provide the most successful end result without compromising the POW.
Accurate azimuth and elevation angle of attack (AOA) information is another very important requirement. Directional IR Counter Measures (DIRCM) systems depend on MAW systems for accurate enough initial pointing (about two degrees) to ensure that the DIRCM acquires and engages incoming missiles timely and successfully.
Accurate AOA is also important in deciding the dispensing direction of the counter measure decoys (flares). It is vital to avoid the situation where the platform and the dispensed decoys both remain within the instantaneous field of view (IFoV) of incoming missiles. In situations like that missiles could very well, once they pass the decoys, still hit the platform. This is of particular importance where separation between the decoys and the platform takes too long as is the case with slow flying aircraft.
Accurate AOA is further important where the platform should preferably maneuver when dispensing decoys to increase the miss distance. This is however more applicable to fast jets where their high speed tends to negate the separation caused by the decoy's ejection velocity. A turn towards approaching missiles to establish/increase the angle between the decoy and the platform is especially important in cases where a missile approaches from the rear between the five or seven 'o clock sectors. If the AOA is not accurate enough, the pilot could very well turn in the wrong direction and set himself up for the situation as described above.
The system must also be fully automated as the human reaction time in relevant cases (short range launches) is too long.
Physical requirements
Light aircraft, helicopters and fighters usually have limited space and mass capacity for additional equipment. The system should also not cause adverse aerodynamic drag which demands minimal physical size and number of boxes. The power consumption must further be kept within the capacity of the platform's electrical system.To reduce the installation and integration costs, the necessary interfaces have to be provided to ensure communication and co-existence with other on-board avionics.
Human Machine Interface (HMI) requirements
Integrated display and control functions are desirable to avoid duplication on instrument panels where space is limited. If a platform is equipped with both radar and missile warning systems, the HMI should display both threats clearly and unambiguously.The integrated HMI must also indicate the system’s operating status, serviceability status, mode of operation, remaining decoy quantities etc. Separate control panels are only justified for safety of flight purposes such as ECM on/off and decoy jettison functions.
Cost considerations
Procuring EW self protection systems has direct and indirect cost implications.Direct costs involve the initial price of the system, spare parts as well as test equipment to ensure that the performance and availability of the systems is maintained throughout their entire life cycle.
Installing and integrating EW systems on aircraft is another direct cost
Indirect cost on the other hand involves degradation of the aircraft’s performance as a result of having the system on-board which in turn impacts negatively on the operating cost of the aircraft.
The lowest initial price of a system does therefore not necessary offer the best solution as all the factors needs to be considered. The overall cost effectiveness of systems i.e. price versus performance is more important in deciding which system to select.
Types of Missile Approach Warning (MAW) systems
Three different technologies have been used for MAW systems i.e.- Pulse Doppler Radar
- Infra Red
- Ultra Violet
based systems. Each technology has their advantages and shortcomings which can be summarized as follows:
Pulse doppler based MAW
Advantages- Can measure distance and speed of approaching missiles. It can therefore determine the time to impact (TTI) and optimize the timing of decoy counter measure (flare) dispensing.
- Does not depend on the motor of missiles to be burning.
- Less sensitive to weather conditions.
Disadvantages
- In sophisticated environments active systems could compromise the aircrafts presence and increase its vulnerability.
- Detection range of small missiles with low radar cross section like MANPADS is limited and could result in marginal warning time and consequent late decoy dispensing.
- Provides only sector warning as it cannot measure direction accurately, so can not point DIRCM systems. It could also lead to bad decision making about the dispensing direction of decoys and maneuvering in certain cases.
- Susceptible to false alarms due to other RF sources.
- Can cause interference with ground air traffic control radars if operating frequency is not selected carefully.
- Probability of warning deteriorates in high ground clutter environments i.e. reflections caused by vertical rock surfaces in mountain and possibly also built up environments.
- More difficult to integrate than passive systems.
Infra red based MAW
Advantages- In general the atmospheric transmission of IR radiation is better than that of solar-blind UV radiation.
- Can potentially achieve longer detection ranges at altitude where there is no ground clutter.
- Can potentially detect the kinetic heat of missiles after motor burnout at altitude but probably not at low level due to high IR background clutter.
- Provides good AOA information for pointing a DIRCM and good decision making regarding decoy dispensing direction and maneuvering.
Disadvantages
- Must compete with massive amounts of natural (sun) and man made IR clutter.
- False alarm rate is therefore a huge problem against surface to air missiles due to high IR background clutter originating from the earth.
- Needs vast computing power to overcome false alarm problem which in turn drives up cost.
- Two colour detectors are used in some systems to assist in the suppression of background clutter and lower FAR. Even though it solves some problems, it creates others as it complicates the system further due to the optical, sensitivity and extremely high pixel rate requirements which impact negatively on cost and reliability.
- Cannot provide actual range information.
- Traditionally IR detectors have very narrow instantaneous fields of view to achieve good enough signal to target ratio. Large detector arrays are therefore required to provide 360° azimuth coverage which is another cost driver.
- Requires cooled detectors which complicates life cycle logistic support and result in high cost of ownership.
- Detection range could be limited against future new technology low IR/UV emission rocket motors.
Ultra violet based MWS
Advantages- Operates in solar blind UV spectral wave length region and therefore has no natural (sun) false alarms. UV based MAW systems therefore have a much reduced false alarm problem to solve compared to IR based systems.
- Very good probability of warning in high clutter background environments.
- Wide instantaneous field of view.
- Provide very good AOA information for good decoy dispensing decision making, maneuvering and for pointing DIRCMs.
- Has fast response time against nearby missile launches.
- Is a simpler system than Pulse Doppler & IR technologies.
- Does not require cooling and needs only moderate computing power.
- Low life cycle cost.
Disadvantages
- To detect approaching missiles, the rocket motor of the missile must be burning - it requires the high effective burning temperatures associate with solid fuel rocket motors.
- IR based systems probably better at altitude but UV better against surface to air missiles.
- Cannot provide actual range information but can derive TTI from the rapid increase in amplitude of the approaching missile’s signal.
- Detection range could be limited against future new technology low IR/UV emission rocket motors.
MAW systems
Current available MAW systems as well as those under development, represent all three types of technologies. Each technology has strong and weak points and none provide a perfect solution.Pulse doppler radar based
France- MWS - 20 (Damien) originally from Dassault Electronique (now Thales)
Israel
- EL/M-2160 (ALQ – 199) from ELTA
Japan
- J/APQ – 1 * from Mitsubishi Electronic Corporation
Russia
- LIP MAW (Obsolete system)
- Arbalet-D from Phazatron NIIR Corporation
UK
- PVS 2000 originally from GEC Marconi and Plessey Avionics (now SELEXSELEX Sistemi IntegratiSELEX Sistemi Integrati, a Finmeccanica company, designs and develops Large Systems for Homeland Protection, systems and radar sensors for air defence, battlefield management, naval warfare, coastal and maritime surveillance, air traffic control and turn-key airport solutions.The company has about...
and Thales) (Obsolete system)
UK and Italy
- AMIDS from SELEX and Elettronica (Uncertain of production/development status)
USA
- AN/ALQ – 127 originally from Westinghouse (now Northrop Grumman) (Obsolete system)
- AN/ALQ – 153 originally from Westinghouse (now Northrop Grumman) (Obsolete system)
- AN/ALQ – 154 from AIL (Obsolete system)
- AN/ALQ – 156 from BAE Systems EI&SBAE Systems Electronics, Intelligence & SupportBAE Systems Electronics, Intelligence & Support is one of two operating groups of BAE Systems Inc., the North American subsidiary of UK-based BAE Systems.-History:...
IR based
Israel- PAWS from Elisra
France
- DDM-SAMIR/DDM-NG from Sagem and MBDA (Uncertain of production/development status)
Germany
- PIMAWS from BGT (Uncertain of production/development status)
Germany and France
- MIRAS from EADS and Thales
UK
- ELIX-IR from Thales UK (Uncertain of production/development status)
USA
- AN/AAR 44A from L-3 Cincinnati Electronics (Obsolete system)
- MIMS from Northop Grumman (Uncertain of production/development status)
USA and Israel
- PAWS - 2 from Raytheon and Elisra
UV based
Germany- AN/AAR 60 or MILDS from EADS
Israel
- Guitar – 350 from Rafael (Uncertain of production/development status)
Sweden/South Africa
USA
- AN/AAR 47 from ATK
- AN/AAR 54 originally from Westinghouse (now Northrop Grumman)
- AN/AAR 57 originally from Sanders (now BAE Systems EI&S)
See also
- Sukhoi Su-30MKM MAW-300Sukhoi Su-30The Sukhoi Su-30 is a twin-engine, two-seat military aircraft developed by Russia's Sukhoi Aviation Corporation. It is a multirole fighter for all-weather, air-to-air and air-to-surface deep interdiction missions.The Su-30 started out as an internal development project in the Sukhoi Su-27 family...
- Radar warning receiverRadar warning receiverRadar warning receiver systems detect the radio emissions of radar systems. Their primary purpose is to issue a warning when a radar signal that might be a threat is detected. The warning can then be used, manually or automatically, to evade the detected threat...
- Infrared Homing (Passive Missile Guidance System)Infrared homingInfrared homing refers to a passive missile guidance system which uses the emission from a target of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum to track and follow it. Missiles which use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat-seekers", since infrared is just below the...
- Directional Infrared Counter MeasuresDirectional Infrared Counter MeasuresDirectional Infrared Counter Measures is a system produced by Elbit Systems, Northrop Grumman, ITT Corporation and BAE Systems to protect aircraft from infrared homing man-portable missiles. It is a lightweight, compact system designed to provide mission-vulnerable aircraft with increased...
- Electronic counter-countermeasuresElectronic counter-countermeasuresElectronic counter-countermeasures is a part of electronic warfare which includes a variety of practices which attempt to reduce or eliminate the effect of electronic countermeasures on electronic sensors aboard vehicles, ships and aircraft and weapons such as missiles. ECCM is also known as...
- Active radar homingActive radar homingActive radar homing is a missile guidance method in which a guided missile contains a radar transceiver and the electronics necessary for it to find and track its target autonomously...