Maximato
Encyclopedia
The Maximato was a period in the historical and political
development of Mexico
ranging from 1928 to 1934. That period was named after Plutarco Elías Calles
, who was known as the Jefe Maximo of the Revolution
. Elias Calles was president in the period 1924-1928, but in the next six years, there were three presidents, all of them subordinate to a lesser or greater extent to Calles. The presidents and their respective mandates, are the following :
The influence of former President ended when Lázaro Cárdenas del Río expelled him from the country in 1936.
was elected as Elías Calles successor. However, Obregón was assassinated by José de León Toral
, a Catholic militant, before he could assume power. To avoid a political vacuum, Calles named himself Jefe Máximo, the political chieftain of Mexico and Emilio Portes Gil
was appointed temporary president, although in reality he was little more than a puppet of Calles. The following year, Calles founded the PNR, or Partido Nacional Revolucionario, the predecessor of today's Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI). Officially, after 1929, Calles served as minister of war, as he continued to suppress the rebellion of the Cristero War
, but a few months later after the intervention of the United States ambassador Dwight Morrow
the Mexican government and the cristeros signed a peace treaty. PNR candidate Pascual Ortiz Rubio
won the controversial 1929 election, in which he defeated the philosopher José Vasconcelos
of the National Antireelectionist Party (PNA), whose campaign was supported mainly by university students, and Pedro Rodríguez Triana of the Mexican Communist Party
(PCM). The election was marred by violence and fraud however, and Vasconcelos refused to accept the result. Dozens of antireelectionists were killed, and Vasconcelos decided to flee the country. During his inauguration, Ortiz Rubio was wounded in an assassination attempt by antireelectionist student Daniel Flores, who was tried and received the death penalty.
During the Maximato, Calles became increasingly authoritarian. In the early 1930s he appears to have flirted with the idea of implementing aspects of fascism in the government. After a large demonstration in 1930 the Mexican Communist Party was banned, Mexico stopped its support for the rebels of César Sandino in Nicaragua
, strikes were no longer tolerated, and the government ceased redistributing lands amongst poorer peasants. Calles had once had been the candidate of the workers and at one point had used Communist unions in his campaign against competing labor organizers but later, having acquired wealth and engaging in finance, suppressed Communism. Overall the Maximato was characterized by growing polarization and radicalization on both sides of the political spectrum, with left wing and right wing groups often fighting against each other in the streets of Mexico's cities.
In 1932 Calles forced Ortiz Rubio to step down because of the latter's appointment of several anticallists in public functions. Ortiz Rubio was succeeded by Abelardo Luján Rodríguez. Although another puppet of Calles, Rodríguez was also known for his progressive reforms. Under his presidency social legislation promised by the Mexican constitution of 1917
was introduced for the first time, including a minimum wage
and the 8-hour working day. Rodríguez also repealed the constitutional amendment that allowed for reelection and extended the president's term to six years. Rodríguez' secretary of education Narciso Bassols
tried to implement a system of "socialist education", and the constitution was amended for this purpose, although it's provisions which sought to suppress religion were removed from the constitution in 1946. The introduction of sex education
proved to be very controversial, and after the protestations of conservative parents, Bassols was forced to step down and socialist education was abandoned.
In 1934, Calles selected his old wartime subordinate Lázaro Cárdenas
as presidential candidate, on the false assumption he could control Cárdenas as he had controlled his predecessors. Soon after his inauguration however, conflicts between Calles and Cárdenas started to arise. Calles opposed Cárdenas' support for labor unions, especially his tolerance and support for strikes, while Cárdenas opposed Calles' violent methods and his closeness to fascist organizations, most notably the Gold Shirts
of general Nicolás Rodríguez Carrasco
, which harassed communists, Jews and Chinese.
Cárdenas started to isolate Calles politically, removing the callistas from political posts and exiling his most powerful allies: Tomás Garrido Canabal
, Fausto Topete, Emilio Portes Gil
, Saturnino Cedillo, Aarón Sáenz and finally Calles himself. Calles and Luis Napoleon Morones
, one of the last remaining influential callistas, were charged with conspiring to blow up a railroad and placed under arrest under the order of President Cárdenas and deported on April 9, 1936 to the United States
. At the time of his arrest, he was reportedly reading a Spanish translation of Mein Kampf
.
History of Mexico
The history of Mexico, a country located in the southern portion of North America, covers a period of more than two millennia. First populated more than 13,000 years ago, the country produced complex indigenous civilizations before being conquered by the Spanish in the 16th Century.Since the...
development of Mexico
Mexico
The United Mexican States , commonly known as Mexico , is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of...
ranging from 1928 to 1934. That period was named after Plutarco Elías Calles
Plutarco Elías Calles
Plutarco Elías Calles was a Mexican general and politician. He was president of Mexico from 1924 to 1928, but he continued to be the de facto ruler from 1928–1935, a period known as the maximato...
, who was known as the Jefe Maximo of the Revolution
Mexican Revolution
The Mexican Revolution was a major armed struggle that started in 1910, with an uprising led by Francisco I. Madero against longtime autocrat Porfirio Díaz. The Revolution was characterized by several socialist, liberal, anarchist, populist, and agrarianist movements. Over time the Revolution...
. Elias Calles was president in the period 1924-1928, but in the next six years, there were three presidents, all of them subordinate to a lesser or greater extent to Calles. The presidents and their respective mandates, are the following :
- Emilio Portes GilEmilio Portes GilEmilio Cándido Portes Gil was President of Mexico from 1928 to 1930.-Biography:Portes Gil was born in Ciudad Victoria, the capital of the state of Tamaulipas in northeast Mexico....
(1928-1930), was designated by Congress to replace the president-elect Álvaro ObregónÁlvaro ObregónGeneral Álvaro Obregón Salido was the President of Mexico from 1920 to 1924. He was assassinated in 1928, shortly after winning election to another presidential term....
, assassinated before taking office. - Pascual Ortiz RubioPascual Ortiz RubioPascual Ortiz Rubio was a Mexican politician. He was born in Morelia, Michoacán as the son of Pascual Ortiz de Ayala y Huerta and Lenor Rubio Cornelis...
(1930-1932), elected to complete the term but resigned. - Abelardo L. RodríguezAbelardo L. RodríguezAbelardo Rodríguez Luján, commonly known as Abelardo L. Rodríguez was the interim president of Mexico from 1932–1934, completing the term of Pascual Ortiz after his resignation.-Early life:...
(1932-1934), was designated by Congress to substitute to Ortiz Rubio.
The influence of former President ended when Lázaro Cárdenas del Río expelled him from the country in 1936.
Background
Under Calles a constitutional change was passed that allowed for a non-consecutive reelection, and in 1928 Álvaro ObregónÁlvaro Obregón
General Álvaro Obregón Salido was the President of Mexico from 1920 to 1924. He was assassinated in 1928, shortly after winning election to another presidential term....
was elected as Elías Calles successor. However, Obregón was assassinated by José de León Toral
José de León Toral
José de León Toral , December 23, 1900 - Mexico City, February 9, 1929) was a Roman Catholic militant who assassinated general Álvaro Obregón, president elect of Mexico in 1928....
, a Catholic militant, before he could assume power. To avoid a political vacuum, Calles named himself Jefe Máximo, the political chieftain of Mexico and Emilio Portes Gil
Emilio Portes Gil
Emilio Cándido Portes Gil was President of Mexico from 1928 to 1930.-Biography:Portes Gil was born in Ciudad Victoria, the capital of the state of Tamaulipas in northeast Mexico....
was appointed temporary president, although in reality he was little more than a puppet of Calles. The following year, Calles founded the PNR, or Partido Nacional Revolucionario, the predecessor of today's Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI). Officially, after 1929, Calles served as minister of war, as he continued to suppress the rebellion of the Cristero War
Cristero War
The Cristero War of 1926 to 1929 was an uprising and counter-revolution against the Mexican government in power at that time. The rebellion was set off by the strict enforcement of the anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917 and the expansion of further anti-clerical laws...
, but a few months later after the intervention of the United States ambassador Dwight Morrow
Dwight Morrow
Dwight Whitney Morrow was an American businessman, politician, and diplomat.-Life:Born in Huntington, West Virginia, he moved with his parents, James E. and Clara Morrow to Allegheny, Pennsylvania in 1875. His father James, was principal of Marshall College, which is now Marshall University...
the Mexican government and the cristeros signed a peace treaty. PNR candidate Pascual Ortiz Rubio
Pascual Ortiz Rubio
Pascual Ortiz Rubio was a Mexican politician. He was born in Morelia, Michoacán as the son of Pascual Ortiz de Ayala y Huerta and Lenor Rubio Cornelis...
won the controversial 1929 election, in which he defeated the philosopher José Vasconcelos
José Vasconcelos
José Vasconcelos Calderón was a Mexican writer, philosopher and politician. He is one of the most influential and controversial personalities in the development of modern Mexico. His philosophy of "indigenismo" affected all aspects of Mexican sociocultural, political, and economic...
of the National Antireelectionist Party (PNA), whose campaign was supported mainly by university students, and Pedro Rodríguez Triana of the Mexican Communist Party
Mexican Communist Party
The Mexican Communist Party was a communist party in Mexico. It was founded in 1911 as the Socialist Workers' Party by Manabendra Nath Roy, a left-wing Indian intellectual. The PSO changed its name to the Mexican Communist Party in November 1919 following the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia...
(PCM). The election was marred by violence and fraud however, and Vasconcelos refused to accept the result. Dozens of antireelectionists were killed, and Vasconcelos decided to flee the country. During his inauguration, Ortiz Rubio was wounded in an assassination attempt by antireelectionist student Daniel Flores, who was tried and received the death penalty.
During the Maximato, Calles became increasingly authoritarian. In the early 1930s he appears to have flirted with the idea of implementing aspects of fascism in the government. After a large demonstration in 1930 the Mexican Communist Party was banned, Mexico stopped its support for the rebels of César Sandino in Nicaragua
Nicaragua
Nicaragua is the largest country in the Central American American isthmus, bordered by Honduras to the north and Costa Rica to the south. The country is situated between 11 and 14 degrees north of the Equator in the Northern Hemisphere, which places it entirely within the tropics. The Pacific Ocean...
, strikes were no longer tolerated, and the government ceased redistributing lands amongst poorer peasants. Calles had once had been the candidate of the workers and at one point had used Communist unions in his campaign against competing labor organizers but later, having acquired wealth and engaging in finance, suppressed Communism. Overall the Maximato was characterized by growing polarization and radicalization on both sides of the political spectrum, with left wing and right wing groups often fighting against each other in the streets of Mexico's cities.
In 1932 Calles forced Ortiz Rubio to step down because of the latter's appointment of several anticallists in public functions. Ortiz Rubio was succeeded by Abelardo Luján Rodríguez. Although another puppet of Calles, Rodríguez was also known for his progressive reforms. Under his presidency social legislation promised by the Mexican constitution of 1917
Constitution of Mexico
The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States is the current constitution of Mexico. It was drafted in Santiago de Querétaro, in the State of Querétaro, by a constitutional convention, during the Mexican Revolution. It was approved by the Constitutional Congress on February 5, 1917...
was introduced for the first time, including a minimum wage
Minimum wage
A minimum wage is the lowest hourly, daily or monthly remuneration that employers may legally pay to workers. Equivalently, it is the lowest wage at which workers may sell their labour. Although minimum wage laws are in effect in a great many jurisdictions, there are differences of opinion about...
and the 8-hour working day. Rodríguez also repealed the constitutional amendment that allowed for reelection and extended the president's term to six years. Rodríguez' secretary of education Narciso Bassols
Narciso Bassols
Narciso Bassols García was a Mexican lawyer, socialist politician, ambassador to France, Russia, and the United Kingdom, and professor of law at the National University of Mexico. He co-founded the Popular Party , and the League of Political Action...
tried to implement a system of "socialist education", and the constitution was amended for this purpose, although it's provisions which sought to suppress religion were removed from the constitution in 1946. The introduction of sex education
Sex education
Sex education refers to formal programs of instruction on a wide range of issues relating to human sexuality, including human sexual anatomy, sexual reproduction, sexual intercourse, reproductive health, emotional relations, reproductive rights and responsibilities, abstinence, contraception, and...
proved to be very controversial, and after the protestations of conservative parents, Bassols was forced to step down and socialist education was abandoned.
In 1934, Calles selected his old wartime subordinate Lázaro Cárdenas
Lázaro Cárdenas
Lázaro Cárdenas del Río was President of Mexico from 1934 to 1940.-Early life:Lázaro Cárdenas was born on May 21, 1895 in a lower-middle class family in the village of Jiquilpan, Michoacán. He supported his family from age 16 after the death of his father...
as presidential candidate, on the false assumption he could control Cárdenas as he had controlled his predecessors. Soon after his inauguration however, conflicts between Calles and Cárdenas started to arise. Calles opposed Cárdenas' support for labor unions, especially his tolerance and support for strikes, while Cárdenas opposed Calles' violent methods and his closeness to fascist organizations, most notably the Gold Shirts
Gold shirts
The Revolutionary Mexicanist Action , better known as the Gold shirts , was a Mexican fascist paramilitary organization in the 1930s.The group was founded by general Nicolás Rodríguez Carrasco in 1933 with the official title of Acción Revolucionaria Mexicana...
of general Nicolás Rodríguez Carrasco
Nicolás Rodríguez Carrasco
Nicolás Rodríguez Carrasco was a Mexican general and fascist.During the Mexican Revolution Rodríguez fought alongside Pancho Villa. He managed to become brigadier general but deserted in 1918. After the revolution he moved to the right and joined several racist, antisemitic and antisinist...
, which harassed communists, Jews and Chinese.
Cárdenas started to isolate Calles politically, removing the callistas from political posts and exiling his most powerful allies: Tomás Garrido Canabal
Tomás Garrido Canabal
Tomás Garrido Canabal , was a Mexican politician and revolutionary. Garrido Canabal served as dictator and governor of the state of Tabasco from 1920 to 1924 and again from 1931 to 1934, and was particularly noted for his anti-Catholic persecution...
, Fausto Topete, Emilio Portes Gil
Emilio Portes Gil
Emilio Cándido Portes Gil was President of Mexico from 1928 to 1930.-Biography:Portes Gil was born in Ciudad Victoria, the capital of the state of Tamaulipas in northeast Mexico....
, Saturnino Cedillo, Aarón Sáenz and finally Calles himself. Calles and Luis Napoleon Morones
Luis Napoleón Morones
Luis Napoleón Morones was a Mexican union boss who served as secretary general of the Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers and as secretary of economy under President Plutarco Elías Calles....
, one of the last remaining influential callistas, were charged with conspiring to blow up a railroad and placed under arrest under the order of President Cárdenas and deported on April 9, 1936 to the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
. At the time of his arrest, he was reportedly reading a Spanish translation of Mein Kampf
Mein Kampf
Mein Kampf is a book written by Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. It combines elements of autobiography with an exposition of Hitler's political ideology. Volume 1 of Mein Kampf was published in 1925 and Volume 2 in 1926...
.