Mantle convection
Encyclopedia
Mantle convection is the slow creeping motion of Earth's rocky mantle
caused by convection
currents carrying heat from the interior of the Earth to the surface. The Earth's surface lithosphere
, which rides atop the asthenosphere
(the two components of the upper mantle), is divided into a number of plates
that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite plate boundaries. Accretion occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a plate, usually associated with seafloor spreading
. This hot added material cools down by conduction
and convection of heat. At the consumption edges of the plate, the material has thermally contracted to become dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction
at an ocean trench.
This subducted material sinks to a depth of 660 kilometers in the Earth's interior where it is impeded from sinking further, possibly due to a phase change from spinel
to perovskite
and magnesiowustite
, an endothermic reaction.
The subducted oceanic crust triggers volcanism
, although the basic mechanisms are varied. Volcanism may occur due to processes that add buoyancy to partially melted mantle causing an upward flow due to a decrease in density of the partial melt.
Secondary forms of convection that may result in surface volcanism are postulated to occur as a consequence of intraplate extension and mantle plumes
.
It is because the mantle can convect that the tectonic plates
are able to move around the Earth's surface.
processes or by plumes
from the lower mantle. Geochemists have argued that the lavas erupted in intraplate areas are different in composition from shallow-derived mid ocean ridge basalts (MORB). This has been interpreted as their originating from a different region, suggested to be the lower mantle. Others, however, have pointed out that the differences indicate the inclusion of a small component of near-surface material from the lithosphere. Seismologists are also divided, with some arguing that there is no evidence for whole-mantle convection, and others arguing that there is.
Mantle (geology)
The mantle is a part of a terrestrial planet or other rocky body large enough to have differentiation by density. The interior of the Earth, similar to the other terrestrial planets, is chemically divided into layers. The mantle is a highly viscous layer between the crust and the outer core....
caused by convection
Convection
Convection is the movement of molecules within fluids and rheids. It cannot take place in solids, since neither bulk current flows nor significant diffusion can take place in solids....
currents carrying heat from the interior of the Earth to the surface. The Earth's surface lithosphere
Lithosphere
The lithosphere is the rigid outermost shell of a rocky planet. On Earth, it comprises the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time scales of thousands of years or greater.- Earth's lithosphere :...
, which rides atop the asthenosphere
Asthenosphere
The asthenosphere is the highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductilely-deforming region of the upper mantle of the Earth...
(the two components of the upper mantle), is divided into a number of plates
Tectonic Plates
Tectonic Plates is a 1992 independent Canadian film directed by Peter Mettler. Mettler also wrote the screenplay based on the play by Robert Lepage. The film stars Marie Gignac, Céline Bonnier and Robert Lepage.-Plot summary:...
that are continuously being created and consumed at their opposite plate boundaries. Accretion occurs as mantle is added to the growing edges of a plate, usually associated with seafloor spreading
Seafloor spreading
Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges, where new oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge. Seafloor spreading helps explain continental drift in the theory of plate tectonics....
. This hot added material cools down by conduction
Heat conduction
In heat transfer, conduction is a mode of transfer of energy within and between bodies of matter, due to a temperature gradient. Conduction means collisional and diffusive transfer of kinetic energy of particles of ponderable matter . Conduction takes place in all forms of ponderable matter, viz....
and convection of heat. At the consumption edges of the plate, the material has thermally contracted to become dense, and it sinks under its own weight in the process of subduction
Subduction
In geology, subduction is the process that takes place at convergent boundaries by which one tectonic plate moves under another tectonic plate, sinking into the Earth's mantle, as the plates converge. These 3D regions of mantle downwellings are known as "Subduction Zones"...
at an ocean trench.
This subducted material sinks to a depth of 660 kilometers in the Earth's interior where it is impeded from sinking further, possibly due to a phase change from spinel
Spinel
Spinel is the magnesium aluminium member of the larger spinel group of minerals. It has the formula MgAl2O4. Balas ruby is an old name for a rose-tinted variety.-Spinel group:...
to perovskite
Perovskite
A perovskite structure is any material with the same type of crystal structure as calcium titanium oxide , known as the perovskite structure, or XIIA2+VIB4+X2−3 with the oxygen in the face centers. Perovskites take their name from this compound, which was first discovered in the Ural mountains of...
and magnesiowustite
Ferropericlase
Ferropericlase or Magnesiowüstite is a magnesium/iron oxide that is interpreted to be one of the main constituents of the Earth's lower mantle together with a magnesium /iron silicate with a perovskite structure. Ferropericlase has been found as inclusions in a few natural diamonds...
, an endothermic reaction.
The subducted oceanic crust triggers volcanism
Volcano
2. Bedrock3. Conduit 4. Base5. Sill6. Dike7. Layers of ash emitted by the volcano8. Flank| 9. Layers of lava emitted by the volcano10. Throat11. Parasitic cone12. Lava flow13. Vent14. Crater15...
, although the basic mechanisms are varied. Volcanism may occur due to processes that add buoyancy to partially melted mantle causing an upward flow due to a decrease in density of the partial melt.
Secondary forms of convection that may result in surface volcanism are postulated to occur as a consequence of intraplate extension and mantle plumes
Mantle plume
A mantle plume is a hypothetical thermal diapir of abnormally hot rock that nucleates at the core-mantle boundary and rises through the Earth's mantle. Such plumes were invoked in 1971 to explain volcanic regions that were not thought to be explicable by the then-new theory of plate tectonics. Some...
.
It is because the mantle can convect that the tectonic plates
Tectonic Plates
Tectonic Plates is a 1992 independent Canadian film directed by Peter Mettler. Mettler also wrote the screenplay based on the play by Robert Lepage. The film stars Marie Gignac, Céline Bonnier and Robert Lepage.-Plot summary:...
are able to move around the Earth's surface.
Types of convection
There is a current debate within the geophysics community as to whether convection is likely to be 'layered' or 'whole'. This debate is linked to the controversy regarding whether intraplate volcanism is caused by shallow, upper-mantleMantle (geology)
The mantle is a part of a terrestrial planet or other rocky body large enough to have differentiation by density. The interior of the Earth, similar to the other terrestrial planets, is chemically divided into layers. The mantle is a highly viscous layer between the crust and the outer core....
processes or by plumes
Mantle plume
A mantle plume is a hypothetical thermal diapir of abnormally hot rock that nucleates at the core-mantle boundary and rises through the Earth's mantle. Such plumes were invoked in 1971 to explain volcanic regions that were not thought to be explicable by the then-new theory of plate tectonics. Some...
from the lower mantle. Geochemists have argued that the lavas erupted in intraplate areas are different in composition from shallow-derived mid ocean ridge basalts (MORB). This has been interpreted as their originating from a different region, suggested to be the lower mantle. Others, however, have pointed out that the differences indicate the inclusion of a small component of near-surface material from the lithosphere. Seismologists are also divided, with some arguing that there is no evidence for whole-mantle convection, and others arguing that there is.