Lightner Witmer
Encyclopedia
Lightner Witmer

Lightner Witmer is an American psychologist who is credited with the introduction of the term "Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology is an integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development...

." Witmer also founded the world's first "Psychological Clinic" in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

 at the University of Pennsylvania
University of Pennsylvania
The University of Pennsylvania is a private, Ivy League university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Penn is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States,Penn is the fourth-oldest using the founding dates claimed by each institution...

 in 1896.

Witmer contributed greatly to numerous branches of psychology including school psychology and clinical psychology. He also contributed to the development of the field of special education. Unfortunately, little is known about Witmer's life. He is described as being an introverted person who limited the information he shared about his personal life.

Witmer's early years and family

Lightner Witmer was born in Philadelphia on June 28, 1867. He was born David L. Witmer Jr. but at the age of 50, he decided to change his name to Lightner, and that is how people have addressed him ever since. Witmer was born to a devout Catholic
Catholic
The word catholic comes from the Greek phrase , meaning "on the whole," "according to the whole" or "in general", and is a combination of the Greek words meaning "about" and meaning "whole"...

 mother and father; David Lightner, a Germantown pharmacist who graduated from a Philadelphia College in 1862 and Katherine Huchel,who we know very little about. Neither of Witmer’s parents belonged to the nobility nor had a lot of money, but both of them worked very hard to become successful in life and ensure that their children had access to the best private schools. They wanted their that their children could obtain a comfortable life-style. Lightner Witmer was the eldest of four children, being followed by "Albert Ferree", “Lilly Evelyn” (the third, only girl), and the last child named “Paul DeLancey”. Later in life, Lightner Witmer was a faculty member at “The University of Pennsylvania.” His siblings also did well for themselves, Ferree his brother obtained his physiology doctorate from The University of Pennsylvania, his sister Lilly Evelyn received her bacteriology medical degree in Berlin
Berlin
Berlin is the capital city of Germany and is one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.45 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city. It is the second most populous city proper and the seventh most populous urban area in the European Union...

, and the youngest sibling obtained a doctoral degree in Pharmacy(Thomas, 2009). By the end of 1905, Lightner Witmer and all his siblings had become doctors in a range of science careers. There is no doubt that their father influenced his children, he instilled in them a value of higher education, and the drive to continue on to obtain doctorates.

Education

Lightner Witmer was born two years after the Civil War
Civil war
A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly-united nation state....

 had ended.
As a young man, Witmer wanted a better future and a better world after the social problems he saw as a result of the Civil War
Civil war
A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same nation state or republic, or, less commonly, between two countries created from a formerly-united nation state....

. Perhaps, this experience influenced his decision to develop a theory of applied psychology
Applied psychology
The basic premise of applied psychology is the use of psychological principles and theories to overcome problems in other areas, such as mental health, business management, education, health, product design, ergonomics, and law...

 which focused on helping people, mainly children and those who most needed it.
In the year of 1880, Lightner Witmer and his brother Ferree enrolled the prestigious Prep School “Episcopal Academy of Philadelphia”, one of the best schools in America
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...

 at the time. Witmer and all his siblings attended only top and outstanding private schools. An interesting anecdote where Witmer showed his intelligence and ability to reason was when he was attending his Prep School. Here, Witmer and two other boys were told to build a canoe. Each one had everything they needed to complete their assigned task, the two other kids were arguing over who would build the canoe first, but Lightner Witmer thought and told the other kids " I wish to finish last as I will learn from others' mistakes and build the best canoe. (Grassetti,2007)By saying this, Witmer showed his ability to reason, and eventually he graduated with high honors at the age of seventeen years old.

First years at The University of Pennsylvania

In 1884, Witmer enrolled at The University of Pennsylvania
University of Pennsylvania
The University of Pennsylvania is a private, Ivy League university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Penn is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States,Penn is the fourth-oldest using the founding dates claimed by each institution...

 to study Art, but then after a couple of years studying , he decided to change his Art major, and transferred to The Finance and Economy department where he obtained a BA degree at the age of twenty years old.(Gassetti, 2007) During his freshman year at The University of Pennsylvania, he was chosen as the president of the class. He obtained his A.B.
Bachelor of Arts
A Bachelor of Arts , from the Latin artium baccalaureus, is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both...

 from the University of Pennsylvania
University of Pennsylvania
The University of Pennsylvania is a private, Ivy League university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Penn is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States,Penn is the fourth-oldest using the founding dates claimed by each institution...

 in 1888. After a stint as a teacher Witmer decided to return to the University of Pennsylvania
University of Pennsylvania
The University of Pennsylvania is a private, Ivy League university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Penn is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States,Penn is the fourth-oldest using the founding dates claimed by each institution...

 for his graduate studies in Political Science
Political science
Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior...

. (McReynolds, 1996)

Teaching at Rugby Academy

During the fall of 1888, Witmer was offered a job as an instructor at a secondary male school called “Rugby Academy.” here, he taught two different subjects History
History
History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...

 and English
English language
English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria...

. while, he was teaching at the academy, Witmer noticed that one of his English class students who he was tutoring had particular difficulties. A 14 year old student who wished to go to college
College
A college is an educational institution or a constituent part of an educational institution. Usage varies in English-speaking nations...

, had extreme difficulties in differentiating sounds, and also had other speech problems which might be actually called "dyslexia
Dyslexia
Dyslexia is a very broad term defining a learning disability that impairs a person's fluency or comprehension accuracy in being able to read, and which can manifest itself as a difficulty with phonological awareness, phonological decoding, orthographic coding, auditory short-term memory, or rapid...

." After Witmer noticed this child's problem he decided to help him to correct his verbal problem, fortunately the child progressed satisfactorily and with the help of his instructor (Lightner Witmer), the student was able to continue studying and enrolled at the University of Pennsylvania
University of Pennsylvania
The University of Pennsylvania is a private, Ivy League university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Penn is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States,Penn is the fourth-oldest using the founding dates claimed by each institution...

. Clinical Psychology, 1907) This success made Witmer believe that children with problems could satisfactorily engage in education with support, dedication and special education.
In the following year in 1889, Witmer finally took the decision to attend graduate school at The University of Pennsylvania and got into the Philosophy department with the intention of studying law
Law
Law is a system of rules and guidelines which are enforced through social institutions to govern behavior, wherever possible. It shapes politics, economics and society in numerous ways and serves as a social mediator of relations between people. Contract law regulates everything from buying a bus...

 and start working towards an advanced degree in political science
Political science
Political Science is a social science discipline concerned with the study of the state, government and politics. Aristotle defined it as the study of the state. It deals extensively with the theory and practice of politics, and the analysis of political systems and political behavior...

. While he was there he was introduced to James McKeen Cattel who inspired him to begin studying in the emerging field of Psychology.

This is when Witmer finally made his decision to join the experimental psychology department. He was one of four students who registered for this program. Witmer started out knowing almost nothing about this brand new type of science.

James McKeen Cattell's influence

George Fullerton, a member of The University of Pennsylvania brought the well known experimental psychologist
Psychologist
Psychologist is a professional or academic title used by individuals who are either:* Clinical professionals who work with patients in a variety of therapeutic contexts .* Scientists conducting psychological research or teaching psychology in a college...

 James McKeen Cattell
James McKeen Cattell
James McKeen Cattell , American psychologist, was the first professor of psychology in the United States at the University of Pennsylvania and long-time editor and publisher of scientific journals and publications, most notably the journal Science...

 to join the faculty of the University. At this time, Cattell was known as one of the best-trained psychologist of the world who had been educated by one of the most influential psychologists “Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt." Witmer was asked by George Fullerton
George Fullerton
George Murray Fullerton was a South African cricketer who played in seven Tests from 1947 to 1951....

 to become Cattell's assistant and, Witmer accepted this great offer, eventually, He decided to resign his teaching position at the Rugby Academy and attend the graduate school at The University of Pennsylvania as a full time student.

The Experimental Psychological Lab

After he decided to become James McKeen Cattell
James McKeen Cattell
James McKeen Cattell , American psychologist, was the first professor of psychology in the United States at the University of Pennsylvania and long-time editor and publisher of scientific journals and publications, most notably the journal Science...

's assistant, Witmer and James McKeen Cattell
James McKeen Cattell
James McKeen Cattell , American psychologist, was the first professor of psychology in the United States at the University of Pennsylvania and long-time editor and publisher of scientific journals and publications, most notably the journal Science...

 decided to work together and fund the experimental psychology lab with the purpose of studying individual differences by using a wide range of subjects. (Grassetti, 2007) Witmer's main tasks at the lab were to gather data on individual differences in reaction times, and through these he gained a lot of knowledge in the are of psychological experiments. While he was working at the lab, Witmer published a manual which explained how experimental psychology
Experimental psychology
Experimental psychology is a methodological approach, rather than a subject, and encompasses varied fields within psychology. Experimental psychologists have traditionally conducted research, published articles, and taught classes on neuroscience, developmental psychology, sensation, perception,...

 should be properly conducted. Witmer intended to get his doctoral degree under Cattell
Cattell
-People:*Alexander G. Cattell, former United States senator from New Jersey.*Alfred Cattell, Wales international rugby player*James McKeen Cattell, the first psychology professor in the United States....

's supervision, However; Cattell suddenly left The University of Pennsylvania effectively abandoning his students, and laboratory. Cattell intended to obtain a higher paying position at Columbia University
Columbia University
Columbia University in the City of New York is a private, Ivy League university in Manhattan, New York City. Columbia is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York, the fifth oldest in the United States, and one of the country's nine Colonial Colleges founded before the...

 in New York
New York
New York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...

. As a result, Witmer also decded to leave. Unfortunately, there was no psychologist besides Cattell at that time, who could have taught psychology to Witmer and his classmates at The University of Pennsylvania, so Witmer was in search of a new teacher.

Journey to Germany

After Cattell left Witmer and his other experimental psychology students; he helped Witmer to get a job as Wundt's assistant in Leipzig, Germany. (McReynolds, 1996) Witmer knew that James McKeen Cattell
James McKeen Cattell
James McKeen Cattell , American psychologist, was the first professor of psychology in the United States at the University of Pennsylvania and long-time editor and publisher of scientific journals and publications, most notably the journal Science...

's offer was a good opportunity, and without hesitation he travelled to the University of Leipzig to become Wundt's assistant.

Witmer under Wundt'supervision

In the year of 1891, Witmer decided to travel to Germany for a year and work as Wundt's assistant, He also took classes with Oswald Kulpe, and Ludwig Strumpel. Unfortunately, there exists no records of what exactly Witmer did while he was working as Wundt's assistant, this is probably because Witmer was a very private person who did not like to share personal information of himself with others, moreover, historians have not found letters written by him sent to other colleagues while he was under Wundt's supervision.
However, it is often said that while Witmer was Wundt’s assistant, they both had disagreements. One of those disputes was that Witmer desired to continue working on the work he had previously started with James Cattell,the study of reaction times but, Wundt insisted that they both should study the aesthetic value of different visual forms, and other different branches of Psychology such as: educational Psychology
Educational psychology
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Educational psychology is concerned with how students learn and develop, often focusing...

, and developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology
Developmental psychology, also known as human development, is the scientific study of systematic psychological changes, emotional changes, and perception changes that occur in human beings over the course of their life span. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to...

, naturally, Witmer accepted. Witmer obtained his doctoral diploma in the year 1892 from Wundt. (McReynolds, 1996)

Return to The University of Pennsylvania

In 1892, Witmer left Germany and decided to go back to The University of Pennsylvania, on his return he became the Director of The Laboratory of Psychology, effectively filling the shoes left by his old advisor, James McKeen Cattell. He was interested in teaching Child Psychology and taught several different courses. He also began conducting research on individual differences in sensory-perceptual variables and presented different papers in experimental psychology.In 1896 he presented a plan of organization for practical work in Psycology to the American Psychological Association
American Psychological Association
The American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States. It is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 154,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. The APA...

. In the year of 1896, he established the world's first psychological clinic, where he also published the article titled “Practical Work in Psychology.” (Witmer, 1907) During the same year he used and explained the term “ Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology is an integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development...

” for the first time. (Grassetti, 2007) In 1902, he started advising graduate students, and published a laboratory manual. Two years later, with the help of Edward B. Titchener
Edward B. Titchener
Edward Bradford Titchener, D.Sc., Ph.D., LL.D., Litt.D. was a British psychologist who studied under Wilhelm Wundt for several years. Titchener is best known for creating his version of psychology that described the structure of the mind; structuralism...

, he formed the group later known as the Society of Experimental Psychologists
Society of Experimental Psychologists
The Society of Experimental Psychologists , originally called the Society of Experimentalists, is an academic society for experimental psychologists. It was founded by Edward Bradford Titchener in 1904 to be an ongoing workshop in which members could visit labs, study apparatus, and hear and...

.
He married Emma Repplier in 1904, a prominent Philadelphian student graduated of the exclusive “Agnes Irwin School
Agnes Irwin School
The Agnes Irwin School is an all-girls', non-sectarian, day school for students in grades PreK-12. The School has been a leader in girls' education since 1869, when it was founded by Miss Agnes Irwin of Philadelphia. Agnes Irwin, a great-great-granddaughter of Benjamin Franklin, later became the...

.” She was an excellent writer who worked for the American Philosophical Society
American Philosophical Society
The American Philosophical Society, founded in 1743, and located in Philadelphia, Pa., is an eminent scholarly organization of international reputation, that promotes useful knowledge in the sciences and humanities through excellence in scholarly research, professional meetings, publications,...

, which is most likely the place that Witmer and her met, since both belonged to the society.( McReynolds, 1987). In 1908, he established and staffed a small private residential school near Wallingford, Pennsylvania
Wallingford, Pennsylvania
Wallingford is an unincorporated community in Nether Providence Township, Delaware County in Pennsylvania, USA. Founded in 1687, it is named for Wallingford, England...

, an institution dedicated to care and treat retarded and troubled children. Later, he established a similar, but larger facility in Devon, Pennsylvania. He also founded the first speech clinic in the world in 1914. (Witmer, 1907)

The American Psychological Association

By the year 1896, Witmer, Stanley Hall, William James
William James
William James was a pioneering American psychologist and philosopher who was trained as a physician. He wrote influential books on the young science of psychology, educational psychology, psychology of religious experience and mysticism, and on the philosophy of pragmatism...

 and James McKeen Cattell
James McKeen Cattell
James McKeen Cattell , American psychologist, was the first professor of psychology in the United States at the University of Pennsylvania and long-time editor and publisher of scientific journals and publications, most notably the journal Science...

 decided to become members of a new association for psychology professionals, during a meeting in the American Psychological Association
American Psychological Association
The American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States. It is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 154,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. The APA...

 (APA). Witmer and other experimental colleagues proposed that the APA should accept only psychological papers, be separated from the American Philosophical Association, and have a better selection process fro choosing new members. Obviously, these proposals caused disagreements among the members of the American Psychological Association
American Psychological Association
The American Psychological Association is the largest scientific and professional organization of psychologists in the United States. It is the world's largest association of psychologists with around 154,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. The APA...

 because many of the current members did not want the field to separate from philosophy. Their proposals were ignored so Witmer decided to start a new society with Stanley Hall exclusively for experimental Psychologists, but Stanley Hall refused. However; in the year of 1904, Titchener accepted Witmer proposal to separate Psychology from Philosophy and decided to abandon the APA society and help Witmer create a society solely for experimental psychologists. Witmer told Titchener that the association should be only for men and women should be excluded because they were too emotional when talking about scientific issues.(Thomas,2009,p. 7). A reason to it could have been that women had not yet been recognized as scientists. But then, he changed his attitude and decided to teach female students and women became accepted to work at his clinic. Moreover, Witmer appointed a woman to become the manager of his clinic. Witmer also wrote and published articles to the APA, one article titled: “The Organization of Practical Work in Psychology.” where he described his desire to apply his knowledge to study humans, and help kids in an academic manner. After he presented his proposal he started developing his plan concerning education. Here, he proposed that schools should become more involved with their student's classes and grades, and that schools should have better educational equipment and the faculty members should receive teaching reflecting Psychological findings. However, his proposal was not completely accepted by many. (Routh, 1996)

First Psychological Clinic

Witmer opened he first Psychological Clinic at the University of Pennsylvania
University of Pennsylvania
The University of Pennsylvania is a private, Ivy League university located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Penn is the fourth-oldest institution of higher education in the United States,Penn is the fourth-oldest using the founding dates claimed by each institution...

 in 1896, with the purpose of studying children who had either learning, or behavior problems. Witmer’s main participants were children who attended public schools from Philadelphia and surrounding areas who were brought to the Psychological Clinic by their own teachers, or parents. Witmer‘s clinic was appreciated by many because it proactively employed psychology as a means of assisting these children who were struggling in school. In the clinic Witmer regularly dealt with speech problems, sleep disturbances, behavioral problems, hyperactivity, refusal to stay in school, as well as other issues. Every child who entered was given a complete examination of mind and body, which often ruled out physiological symptoms. His method of improving children with psychological problems involved breaking down information to a level that they could understand it. He would focus on particular problems and work with the child in that area, often improving several areas at once. (Witmer, 1907)

Meanwhile, Witmer wrote an article titled Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology is an integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development...

 which explained its definition, describing it the following way:

Although clinical psychology is clearly related to medicine, it is quite as closely related to sociology and pedagogy.An abundance of material for scientific study fails to be utilized, because the interest of psychologists is elsewhere engaged, and those in constant touch with the actual phenomena do not possess the training necessary to make the experience and observation of scientific value…I have borrowed the word “clinical” from medicine, because it is the term I can find to indicate the character of the method which I deem necessary for this work.(Hergenhahn,2009,p. 501).

Witmer‘s "Clinic Psychology” was published and got a lot of attention, because it dealt with the study of children individually. In his article, Witmer presented the idea that all kinds of children( smart or mentally retarded ) could reach their full potential with help. He included a definiton of retardation using two different terms: “physiological retardation referred to individuals who did not acquired a normal development for their chronological ages, whereas, the other term was called pedagogical retardation referred to children who did not develop their full capacities when reached adulthood(Witmer,1907) .

In his “Clinical Psychology
Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology is an integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development...

” article, he also criticized some of his colleagues and their departments for the only reason that they had refused his ideas proposed to the American Psychological Association, and criticized William James, because he believed that James was doing a fraudulent an unscientific mental health movements and his belief of supernatural phenomena.
There was no doubt Witmer always defended his own ideas and beliefs even though it seemed that he did not care about other psychologists point of views. This and other disagreements caused Witmer to lose most of their colleagues’ friendships, who decided not to attend anymore of Witmer’s meetings. This might have been one of the reasons why Lightner Witmer is not a very memorable psychologist an was considered as “the spoiled child of American Psychology.”
Witmer also attacked Harvard University for using the theory of introspection and teaching psychology incorrectly since Lightner Witmer also refused the idea theory introspection and did not care so much pure experimental psychology.
Lightner Witmer also criticized “Intelligence Tests” and encouraged his students not to thrust on them, because he thought those tests only gave a measure of the individual efficiency, nothing else.This point of view teach us that Lightner Witmer thought that people should not be referred as normal or abnormal due to the results of such tests and that society was the only who stereotyped individuals. For example, some society members could say that an individual was normal or abnormal depending if he or she knew or not how write and read properly.

Another type of study performed by Witmer was the use of apes and compared them with children and taught them how to articulate some elements of spoken language, but their efforts to learn were not success, however, one day Witmer attended a performance and noticed that as monkey was able to do some things human beings could do such as reading and writing, after being instructed to do such things.
As mentioned before, Witmer also studied people’s behavior and changed his mind by starting to study gifted children instead of mentally retarded children. In the year of 1900, his book called
”The Restoration of Children of the Slums.” described Witmer’s beliefs that criminal behavior was not caused hereditarily, instead he thought criminal behavior was caused due to environmental facts.

It is known that Witmer supported kids tremendously, however, one day in 1911, Witmer decided to do an unbelievable thing, he supported a bill in the state of Pennsylvania in order to sterilized severely retarded people, with the purpose to minimize their spread in the nation
This is really difficult to believe because as it is known that years ago, Witmer had defended all kids’ rights, no matter if some were gifted or retarded children. But in the year of 1912, he had decided to go to Italy and learn how to study pedagogical methods with special children.

Witmer's final days

By the year of 1917, Witmer joined the Red Cross during the World War I. His main tasks were to help to rehabilitate homeless people who were victims of the war, but in 1918, decided to go back to The United States. When he came back, in the year of 1920 his mother and Titchener had passed away and he decided not to publish anymore. By the year of 1930, The University of Pennsylvania gave him a copy of the volume called “ Clinical Psychology: Studies in honor of In July 19 in 1956
when he was 89 years old he died at the hospital in “Bryn Mawr”, in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania
The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania is a U.S. state that is located in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The state borders Delaware and Maryland to the south, West Virginia to the southwest, Ohio to the west, New York and Ontario, Canada, to the north, and New Jersey to...

 from a heart failure, being the last member of the American Psychological Association who died.(McReynolds,1997.

Conclusion

Despite all of Lightmer Witmer's contributions to the field of applied Psychology,he remains a little known scientist. Friends of his have described him as a very honest, aggressive and critical person. They also observed him to be a man who was also critical of his own work, and who was not afraid to fix his mistakes. His actions and publications have influenced the founding of many Psychological clinics in different universities throughout the United States. The Psychological Clinic that he originally formed does not exist anymore, yet he remains as a shadow in the field that he put a name to. He might have been minimized through the years as a result of critical attitudes towards his colleagues. He often reacted aggressively without having any respect for anyone else's point of view. However, those who have a true historical view of psychology will always remember him as the Founder of the “First Psychological Clinic.”

Works

  • 'The Association Value of Three-Place Consonant Syllables.” Journal of Genetic Psychology 47 (1935): 337-360.
  • 'Are We Educating the Rising Generation?” Education Review. 37 (1909): 456-467.
  • 'Children with mental Defects Distinguished from Mentally Defective Children.” Psychological Clinic. 7 (1913): 173-181.
  • 'Clinical Psychology.” Psychological Clinic. 1 (1907): 1-9.
  • 'Courses in Psychology for Normal Schools. Education Review 13 (1897): 45-57, 146-162.
  • 'The Exceptional Child and the Training of Teachers for Exceptional Children. School & Society. 2 (1915): 217-229.
  • 'Experimental Psychology and the Psych-physical Laboratory. University Extension (1894): 230-238.
  • 'Intelligence—A Definition.” Psychological Clinic. 14 (1922): 65-67.
  • 'Performance and Success: An Outline of Psychology for Diagnostic Testing and Teaching. Psychological Clinic 12 (1919): 145-170.
  • 'The Problem of Educability. Psychological Clinic 12 (1919): 174-178.
  • 'The raining of Very Bright Children. Psychological Clinic 13 (1919): 88-96.
  • 'What Is Intelligence, and Who Has It? Scientific Monthly 15 (1922): 57-67.

Sources

1.Hergenhahn, B. (2009). An Introduction to the History of Psychology. ( 6th ed.)Wadsworth, CA:Cengage Learning. McReynolds, P. (1997). Lightner Witmer: His life and Times (1st ed.) Washington, D.C. American Psychological Association.

2. McReynolds, P. Psychology in Retrospect. Lightner Witmer. Little-Known Founder of Clinical
Psychology. 849 - 858. Retrieved from http://psycnet.apa.org/journals/amp/42/9/849.pdf

3. Thomas, H. (2009).Discovering Lightner Witmer: A forgotten hero of Psychology. Journal of Scientific Psychology. 3 – 13. Retrieved from http://psyencelab.com/images/
Discovering_Lightner_Witmer.pdf

4. Watson, R. The American Journal of Psychology Vol. 69, No. 4 (Dec., 1956), pp. 680–682

5. McReynolds, P. (1996). Lightner witmer: A centennial tribute. American Psychologist, 51(1), 237-240.

6. Witmer, L. (1907). Clinical psychology. The Psychological Clinic, 1, 1-9.

7. Routh, D. (1996). Lightner witmer and the first 100 years of clinical psychology. American Psychologist, 51(1), 244-247.
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