Library of Constantinople
Encyclopedia
The Imperial Library of Constantinople
, in the capital city of the Byzantine Empire
, was the last of the great libraries of the ancient world
. Long after the destruction of the Great Library of Alexandria
and the other ancient libraries, it preserved the knowledge of the ancient Greek
s and Romans
for almost 1,000 years, until it was mostly destroyed during the Fourth Crusade
in 1204. It was founded by Constantius II (reigned 337-361 AD) who established a Scriptorium so that the surviving works of Greek literature could be copied and so preserved. The Emperor Valens in 372 employed four Greek and three Latin calligraphers.
and as the material making up the text began to deteriorate there was a movement to transfer the text to parchment
. Around the 4th century, Constantine the Great began the movement to transfer text (specifically Holy Scripture) from papyrus to parchment. Constantine's heir to the throne Constantius II
continued this movement. It was his work that culminated in the first Imperial Library of Constantinople. The library is estimated to have contained some 100,000 volumes of ancient text. The movement was headed by one Themistios, who commanded a group of calligraphers and librarians.
: in 680 AD, during his Readership, he was Notary or Reporter at the 6th General Council, which condemned the Monothelite heresy
. He sent copies of the acts, written by himself, to the five Patriarchate
s. In 712 AD he wrote a short treatise, still extant in Greek, on the attempts of Philippicus Bardanes
to revive Monothelitism
.
and the Hellenistic history were given priority over Latin works.
Also not prioritized were older works that were no longer spoken like the works of the Attic
period. Works like Sophocles
and other authors, whose works focused on grammar and text were chosen over least used or contemporary works. Due to this form of selective preservation, many works, which were known to Themistios and that he mentions like the triad of Stoic
philosophers are now lost. Some fragments of these lost works have been found at Herculaneum
.
For papyrus texts that were not translatable, the group attempted to preserve them from decay by encasing them in parchment.
is greater than would be the case if not for their efforts.
In 1204, the library became a target of the knights of the Fourth Crusade
. The library itself was destroyed and its contents burned or sold. The great part of the library that was saved later became absorbed into the Ottoman
Sultan's library after the Muslim forces of Mehmed II
, Sultan of the Ottoman Turks, captured Constantinople
at the end of the siege of 1453.
Constantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
, in the capital city of the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
, was the last of the great libraries of the ancient world
Great libraries of the ancient world
The great libraries of the ancient world served as archives for empires, sanctuaries for sacred writings, and depositories of literature and chronicles.-Syria, Iraq, Iran:...
. Long after the destruction of the Great Library of Alexandria
Library of Alexandria
The Royal Library of Alexandria, or Ancient Library of Alexandria, in Alexandria, Egypt, was the largest and most significant great library of the ancient world. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a major center of scholarship from its construction in the...
and the other ancient libraries, it preserved the knowledge of the ancient Greek
Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity. Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era. Included in Ancient Greece is the...
s and Romans
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
for almost 1,000 years, until it was mostly destroyed during the Fourth Crusade
Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade was originally intended to conquer Muslim-controlled Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt. Instead, in April 1204, the Crusaders of Western Europe invaded and conquered the Christian city of Constantinople, capital of the Eastern Roman Empire...
in 1204. It was founded by Constantius II (reigned 337-361 AD) who established a Scriptorium so that the surviving works of Greek literature could be copied and so preserved. The Emperor Valens in 372 employed four Greek and three Latin calligraphers.
History
Most of the text and literature of Ancient Greece was written on papyrusPapyrus
Papyrus is a thick paper-like material produced from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus, a wetland sedge that was once abundant in the Nile Delta of Egypt....
and as the material making up the text began to deteriorate there was a movement to transfer the text to parchment
Parchment
Parchment is a thin material made from calfskin, sheepskin or goatskin, often split. Its most common use was as a material for writing on, for documents, notes, or the pages of a book, codex or manuscript. It is distinct from leather in that parchment is limed but not tanned; therefore, it is very...
. Around the 4th century, Constantine the Great began the movement to transfer text (specifically Holy Scripture) from papyrus to parchment. Constantine's heir to the throne Constantius II
Constantius II
Constantius II , was Roman Emperor from 337 to 361. The second son of Constantine I and Fausta, he ascended to the throne with his brothers Constantine II and Constans upon their father's death....
continued this movement. It was his work that culminated in the first Imperial Library of Constantinople. The library is estimated to have contained some 100,000 volumes of ancient text. The movement was headed by one Themistios, who commanded a group of calligraphers and librarians.
Agathon
Agathon, was at first Reader, then Librarian, at ConstantinopleConstantinople
Constantinople was the capital of the Roman, Eastern Roman, Byzantine, Latin, and Ottoman Empires. Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and wealthiest city.-Names:...
: in 680 AD, during his Readership, he was Notary or Reporter at the 6th General Council, which condemned the Monothelite heresy
Monothelitism
Monothelitism is a particular teaching about how the divine and human relate in the person of Jesus, known as a Christological doctrine, that formally emerged in Armenia and Syria in 629. Specifically, monothelitism teaches that Jesus Christ had two natures but only one will...
. He sent copies of the acts, written by himself, to the five Patriarchate
Patriarchate
A patriarchate is the office or jurisdiction of a patriarch. A patriarch, as the term is used here, is either* one of the highest-ranking bishops in Eastern Orthodoxy, earlier, the five that were included in the Pentarchy: Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, but now nine,...
s. In 712 AD he wrote a short treatise, still extant in Greek, on the attempts of Philippicus Bardanes
Philippikos
Philippikos or Philippicus , was Emperor of Byzantium from 711 to 713.-Biography:Philippicus was originally named Bardanes , and was the son of the patrician Nikephorus, who was of Armenian extraction from an Armenian colony in Pergamum....
to revive Monothelitism
Monothelitism
Monothelitism is a particular teaching about how the divine and human relate in the person of Jesus, known as a Christological doctrine, that formally emerged in Armenia and Syria in 629. Specifically, monothelitism teaches that Jesus Christ had two natures but only one will...
.
Contents of the library
A great deal of time and attention was dedicated by those working on the transition of the ancient papyrus text to parchment, to what warranted being actually preserved. Older works like HomerHomer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
and the Hellenistic history were given priority over Latin works.
Also not prioritized were older works that were no longer spoken like the works of the Attic
Attica
Attica is a historical region of Greece, containing Athens, the current capital of Greece. The historical region is centered on the Attic peninsula, which projects into the Aegean Sea...
period. Works like Sophocles
Sophocles
Sophocles is one of three ancient Greek tragedians whose plays have survived. His first plays were written later than those of Aeschylus, and earlier than or contemporary with those of Euripides...
and other authors, whose works focused on grammar and text were chosen over least used or contemporary works. Due to this form of selective preservation, many works, which were known to Themistios and that he mentions like the triad of Stoic
STOIC
STOIC was a variant of Forth.It started out at the MIT and Harvard Biomedical Engineering Centre in Boston, and was written in the mid 1970s by Jonathan Sachs...
philosophers are now lost. Some fragments of these lost works have been found at Herculaneum
Herculaneum
Herculaneum was an ancient Roman town destroyed by volcanic pyroclastic flows in AD 79, located in the territory of the current commune of Ercolano, in the Italian region of Campania in the shadow of Mt...
.
For papyrus texts that were not translatable, the group attempted to preserve them from decay by encasing them in parchment.
The destruction of the library
Over the centuries, several fires in the Library of Constantinople destroyed much of the collection. The library was burnt in the year 473 and about 120,000 volumes were lost. However, the attempts of Themistios and Constantius were not fruitless, as some works were saved and recopied and circulated through other texts. Consequently, modern knowledge of Classical Greek literatureAncient Greek literature
Ancient Greek literature refers to literature written in the Ancient Greek language until the 4th century.- Classical and Pre-Classical Antiquity :...
is greater than would be the case if not for their efforts.
In 1204, the library became a target of the knights of the Fourth Crusade
Fourth Crusade
The Fourth Crusade was originally intended to conquer Muslim-controlled Jerusalem by means of an invasion through Egypt. Instead, in April 1204, the Crusaders of Western Europe invaded and conquered the Christian city of Constantinople, capital of the Eastern Roman Empire...
. The library itself was destroyed and its contents burned or sold. The great part of the library that was saved later became absorbed into the Ottoman
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
Sultan's library after the Muslim forces of Mehmed II
Mehmed II
Mehmed II , was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a short time from 1444 to September 1446, and later from...
, Sultan of the Ottoman Turks, captured Constantinople
Fall of Constantinople
The Fall of Constantinople was the capture of the capital of the Byzantine Empire, which occurred after a siege by the Ottoman Empire, under the command of Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II, against the defending army commanded by Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI...
at the end of the siege of 1453.