Landscape planning
Encyclopedia
Landscape planning is a branch of landscape architecture
. Urban park system
s and greenway
of the type planned by Frederick Law Olmsted
are key examples of urban landscape planning. Landscape designers tend to work for clients who wish to commission construction work. Landscape planners can look beyond the 'closely drawn technical limits' and 'narrowly drawn territorial boundaries' which constrain design projects.
Landscape planners tend to work on projects which:
In rural areas, the damage caused by unplanned mineral extraction was one of the early reasons for a public demand for landscape planning.
and to the Vaastu Shastras. These ancient texts set forth principles for planning settlements, temples and other structures in relation to the natural landscape
. Relationships with mountains (the home of the gods) and with rivers (regarded as goddesses) were of particular importance. A square form represented the earth and a circular form represented heaven. A mandala
explained the relationship between heaven and earth. Square plans, for both secular and religious structures, were set out with their sides facing north, south, east and west. The earliest surviving stone temple set out in this way is Sanchi
.
In China, landscape planning originated with Feng Shui
, which is translated into English as 'wind and water' and is used to describe a set of general principles for the planning of development in relation to the natural landscape
. The aim was to find the most auspicious environment possible, one sited in harmony with natural phenomena and the physical and psychological needs of man' (Chinese Architecture by Nancy Steinhardt et al. Yale University Press and New World Press 2002, p. 255)
, the history of landscape planning can be traced to the work of Vitruvius
. In discussing the planning of towns, he wrote about site planning with regard to microclimate, about the planning of streets and about the role of metaphor in design. Vitruvius' theories were revived during the renaissance and came to influence the planning of towns throughout Europe and the Americas. Alberti
wrote on the need for town squares for markets. In North Europe this developed into the idea that residential squares should planned around green spaces. The first space of this type was the Place des Vosges
. Residential squares were also made in Britain and their planning developed into the idea of incorporating public open space (public parks within towns. Frederick Law Olmsted
gave momentum to this idea with his proposal for a park system
s in Boston - the famous Emerald Necklace
. Patrick Abercrombie
took up this idea and incorporated it in his great 1943-4 Open Space Plan for the County of London.
system. Frederick Law Olmsted
and Ian McHarg
are the most famous American landscape planners. McHarg's work on overlay landscape planning contributed to the development of GIS and to the foundation of ESRI
by Jack Dangermond
.
was influenced by the work of Ian McHarg
on Environmental impact assessment
. In Germany, the Federal Nature Conservation Act requires the preparation of landscape plans. For the Europe Union as a whole, the European Landscape Convention
has wide-ranging implications for the design and planning of relationships between development and the landscape. In Asia, major development projects are taking place and illustrating the need for good landscape planning. The Three Gorges Dam
, for example, will have extensive impacts on the landscape. They have been planned to a degree but future monitoring of the project is likely to show that better landscape planning and design would have been possible.
Landscape planning not always means an ecological planning method, for that it must be considered that:
“planning is a process that uses the scientific and technical information for considering and reaching consensus on a range of choises. Ecology is the study of the relationship of all living things, including people, to their biological and physical environments. Ecological planning then may be defined as the use of biophysical and sociocultural information to suggest opportunities and constraints for decision making about the use of landscape.”(Steiner, 1991)
Landscape architecture
Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor and public spaces to achieve environmental, socio-behavioral, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and geological conditions and processes in the landscape, and the design of interventions...
. Urban park system
Park system
A park system, also known as an open space system, is a network of open spaces which are connected by public walkways, bridleways or cycleways. In modern landscape practice, the park system concept is being overtaken by the idea of planning greenways which run through urban and rural areas.One of...
s and greenway
Greenway (landscape)
A greenway is a long, narrow piece of land, often used for recreation and pedestrian and bicycle user traffic, and sometimes for streetcar, light rail or retail uses.- Terminology :...
of the type planned by Frederick Law Olmsted
Frederick Law Olmsted
Frederick Law Olmsted was an American journalist, social critic, public administrator, and landscape designer. He is popularly considered to be the father of American landscape architecture, although many scholars have bestowed that title upon Andrew Jackson Downing...
are key examples of urban landscape planning. Landscape designers tend to work for clients who wish to commission construction work. Landscape planners can look beyond the 'closely drawn technical limits' and 'narrowly drawn territorial boundaries' which constrain design projects.
Landscape planners tend to work on projects which:
- are of broad geographical scope
- concern many land uses or many clients
- are implemented over a long period of time
In rural areas, the damage caused by unplanned mineral extraction was one of the early reasons for a public demand for landscape planning.
In Asia
In India, the history of landscape planning can be traced to the VedasVedas
The Vedas are a large body of texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest scriptures of Hinduism....
and to the Vaastu Shastras. These ancient texts set forth principles for planning settlements, temples and other structures in relation to the natural landscape
Natural landscape
A natural landscape is a landscape that is unaffected by human activity. A natural landscape is intact when all living and nonliving elements are free to move and change. The nonliving elements distinguish a natural landscape from a wilderness. A wilderness includes areas within which natural...
. Relationships with mountains (the home of the gods) and with rivers (regarded as goddesses) were of particular importance. A square form represented the earth and a circular form represented heaven. A mandala
Mandala
Maṇḍala is a Sanskrit word that means "circle". In the Buddhist and Hindu religious traditions their sacred art often takes a mandala form. The basic form of most Hindu and Buddhist mandalas is a square with four gates containing a circle with a center point...
explained the relationship between heaven and earth. Square plans, for both secular and religious structures, were set out with their sides facing north, south, east and west. The earliest surviving stone temple set out in this way is Sanchi
Sanchi
Sanchi is a small village in Raisen District of the state of Madhya Pradesh, India, it is located 46 km north east of Bhopal, and 10 km from Besnagar and Vidisha in the central part of the state of Madhya Pradesh. It is the location of several Buddhist monuments dating from the 3rd...
.
In China, landscape planning originated with Feng Shui
Feng shui
Feng shui ' is a Chinese system of geomancy believed to use the laws of both Heaven and Earth to help one improve life by receiving positive qi. The original designation for the discipline is Kan Yu ....
, which is translated into English as 'wind and water' and is used to describe a set of general principles for the planning of development in relation to the natural landscape
Natural landscape
A natural landscape is a landscape that is unaffected by human activity. A natural landscape is intact when all living and nonliving elements are free to move and change. The nonliving elements distinguish a natural landscape from a wilderness. A wilderness includes areas within which natural...
. The aim was to find the most auspicious environment possible, one sited in harmony with natural phenomena and the physical and psychological needs of man' (Chinese Architecture by Nancy Steinhardt et al. Yale University Press and New World Press 2002, p. 255)
In Europe
In EuropeEurope
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
, the history of landscape planning can be traced to the work of Vitruvius
Vitruvius
Marcus Vitruvius Pollio was a Roman writer, architect and engineer, active in the 1st century BC. He is best known as the author of the multi-volume work De Architectura ....
. In discussing the planning of towns, he wrote about site planning with regard to microclimate, about the planning of streets and about the role of metaphor in design. Vitruvius' theories were revived during the renaissance and came to influence the planning of towns throughout Europe and the Americas. Alberti
Alberti
-Places:* Alberti Partido, a partido of Buenos Aires Province, Argentina* Alberti, Buenos Aires, the main town of the partido-Other:*Alberti bass, a musical accompaniment figuration, usually in the left hand on a keyboard instrument...
wrote on the need for town squares for markets. In North Europe this developed into the idea that residential squares should planned around green spaces. The first space of this type was the Place des Vosges
Place des Vosges
The Place des Vosges is the oldest planned square in Paris.It is located in the Marais district, and it straddles the dividing-line between the 3rd and 4th arrondissements of Paris.- History :...
. Residential squares were also made in Britain and their planning developed into the idea of incorporating public open space (public parks within towns. Frederick Law Olmsted
Frederick Law Olmsted
Frederick Law Olmsted was an American journalist, social critic, public administrator, and landscape designer. He is popularly considered to be the father of American landscape architecture, although many scholars have bestowed that title upon Andrew Jackson Downing...
gave momentum to this idea with his proposal for a park system
Park system
A park system, also known as an open space system, is a network of open spaces which are connected by public walkways, bridleways or cycleways. In modern landscape practice, the park system concept is being overtaken by the idea of planning greenways which run through urban and rural areas.One of...
s in Boston - the famous Emerald Necklace
Emerald Necklace
The Emerald Necklace consists of an chain of parks linked by parkways and waterways in Boston and Brookline, Massachusetts. It gets its name from the way the planned chain appears to hang from the "neck" of the Boston peninsula, although it was never fully constructed.-Overview:The Necklace...
. Patrick Abercrombie
Patrick Abercrombie
Sir Leslie Patrick Abercrombie ) was an English town planner. Educated at Uppingham School, Rutland; brother of Lascelles Abercrombie, poet and literary critic.-Career:...
took up this idea and incorporated it in his great 1943-4 Open Space Plan for the County of London.
In the US
Landscape architects in the United States of America are active in landscape planning. But, unlike Canada and Europe, the US does not have a national land use planningLand use planning
Land-use planning is the term used for a branch of public policy encompassing various disciplines which seek to order and regulate land use in an efficient and ethical way, thus preventing land-use conflicts. Governments use land-use planning to manage the development of land within their...
system. Frederick Law Olmsted
Frederick Law Olmsted
Frederick Law Olmsted was an American journalist, social critic, public administrator, and landscape designer. He is popularly considered to be the father of American landscape architecture, although many scholars have bestowed that title upon Andrew Jackson Downing...
and Ian McHarg
Ian McHarg
Ian L. McHarg was born in Clydebank, Scotland and became a landscape architect and a renowned writer on regional planning using natural systems. He was the founder of the department of landscape architecture at the University of Pennsylvania in the United States. His 1969 book Design with Nature...
are the most famous American landscape planners. McHarg's work on overlay landscape planning contributed to the development of GIS and to the foundation of ESRI
ESRI
Esri is a software development and services company providing Geographic Information System software and geodatabase management applications. The headquarters of Esri is in Redlands, California....
by Jack Dangermond
Jack Dangermond
Jack Dangermond is an American business executive and environmental scientist. In 1969, he co-founded with his wife Laura the Environmental Systems Research Institute , a privately-held Geographic Information Systems software company...
.
Legislation
The principles of landscape planning are now incorporated in various types of legislation and policy documents. In America, the National Environmental Policy ActNational Environmental Policy Act
The National Environmental Policy Act is a United States environmental law that established a U.S. national policy promoting the enhancement of the environment and also established the President's Council on Environmental Quality ....
was influenced by the work of Ian McHarg
Ian McHarg
Ian L. McHarg was born in Clydebank, Scotland and became a landscape architect and a renowned writer on regional planning using natural systems. He was the founder of the department of landscape architecture at the University of Pennsylvania in the United States. His 1969 book Design with Nature...
on Environmental impact assessment
Environmental impact assessment
An environmental impact assessment is an assessment of the possible positive or negative impact that a proposed project may have on the environment, together consisting of the natural, social and economic aspects....
. In Germany, the Federal Nature Conservation Act requires the preparation of landscape plans. For the Europe Union as a whole, the European Landscape Convention
European Landscape Convention
The European Landscape Convention, also known as the Florence Convention, was initiated by the Congress of Regional and Local Authorities of the Council of Europe...
has wide-ranging implications for the design and planning of relationships between development and the landscape. In Asia, major development projects are taking place and illustrating the need for good landscape planning. The Three Gorges Dam
Three Gorges Dam
The Three Gorges Dam is a hydroelectric dam that spans the Yangtze River by the town of Sandouping, located in the Yiling District of Yichang, in Hubei province, China...
, for example, will have extensive impacts on the landscape. They have been planned to a degree but future monitoring of the project is likely to show that better landscape planning and design would have been possible.
Methodology
The conventional planning process is a linear progression of activities. The common steps are:- Identification of problems and opportunities.
- Establishment of goals.
- Inventory and analysis of the biophysical environment.
- Human community inventory and analysis.
- Development of concepts and the selection of options.
- Adoption of a plan.
- Community involvement and education.
- Detailed design.
- Plan implementation.
- Plan administration.
Landscape planning not always means an ecological planning method, for that it must be considered that:
“planning is a process that uses the scientific and technical information for considering and reaching consensus on a range of choises. Ecology is the study of the relationship of all living things, including people, to their biological and physical environments. Ecological planning then may be defined as the use of biophysical and sociocultural information to suggest opportunities and constraints for decision making about the use of landscape.”(Steiner, 1991)
See also
- Landscape architectureLandscape architectureLandscape architecture is the design of outdoor and public spaces to achieve environmental, socio-behavioral, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic investigation of existing social, ecological, and geological conditions and processes in the landscape, and the design of interventions...
- Landscape managementLandscape managerLandscape managers are professionally trained and qualified experts in landscaping management for conservation and recreation stewardship of designed and natural landscapes.-Scope of work:...
- Landscape ecologyLandscape ecologyLandscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between urban development and ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems...
- Landscape InstituteLandscape InstituteThe Landscape Institute is a British professional body for landscape architects. Founded in 1929 as the Institute of Landscape Architects, it was granted a Royal Charter in 1997. The Institute aims to promote landscape architecture, and to regulate the profession with a code of conduct that...
- Landscape of agricultureLandscape of agricultureThe primary purpose of agriculture is food production but concern for other objectives have a long history and are of increasing importance in wealthy and urbanized countries. The European Union Set-Aside Policy was designed as a means of giving money to farmers to produce non-food environmental...
- Landscape urbanismLandscape urbanismLandscape Urbanism is a theory of urbanism arguing that landscape, rather than architecture, is more capable of organizing the city and enhancing the urban experience. Landscape Urbanism has emerged as a theory in the last fifteen years...
- Environmental impact assessmentEnvironmental impact assessmentAn environmental impact assessment is an assessment of the possible positive or negative impact that a proposed project may have on the environment, together consisting of the natural, social and economic aspects....
- Urban designUrban designUrban design concerns the arrangement, appearance and functionality of towns and cities, and in particular the shaping and uses of urban public space. It has traditionally been regarded as a disciplinary subset of urban planning, landscape architecture, or architecture and in more recent times has...
- Green roofGreen roofA green roof is a roof of a building that is partially or completely covered with vegetation and a growing medium, planted over a waterproofing membrane. It may also include additional layers such as a root barrier and drainage and irrigation systems...
- Growth managementGrowth managementGrowth management is a set of techniques used by government to ensure that as the population grows that there are services available to meet their demands. These are not necessarily only government services...
- Principles of Intelligent UrbanismPrinciples of Intelligent UrbanismPrinciples of Intelligent Urbanism is a theory of urban planning composed of a set of ten axioms intended to guide the formulation of city plans and urban designs. They are intended to reconcile and integrate diverse urban planning and management concerns...
- Sustainable citySustainable cityA sustainable city, or eco-city is a city designed with consideration of environmental impact, inhabited by people dedicated to minimization of required inputs of energy, water and food, and waste output of heat, air pollution - CO2, methane, and water pollution...
- Sustainable landscape architectureSustainable landscape architectureSustainable landscape architecture is a category of sustainable design concerned with the planning and design of outdoor space.This can include ecological, social and economic aspects of sustainability...
- European Landscape ConventionEuropean Landscape ConventionThe European Landscape Convention, also known as the Florence Convention, was initiated by the Congress of Regional and Local Authorities of the Council of Europe...
- Permanent European Conference for the Study of the Rural LandscapePermanent European Conference for the Study of the Rural LandscapeThe Permanent European Conference for the Study of the Rural Landscape is an international network of landscape researchers whose interest focus on the past, present and future of European landscapes; and serves as an international platform for new initiatives, meetings and publications about...
External links
- European Landscape Convention Official statement by the Council of Europe
- The "Landscape Must Become the Law" - Or Should It? by Gert Groening