Invasion of Hanover (1757)
Encyclopedia
The Invasion of Hanover took place in 1757 during the Seven Years' War
when a French
army under Louis Charles César Le Tellier, duc d'Estrées
advanced into Electorate of Hanover
and neighbouring German states following the Battle of Hastenbeck
. French forces overran most of Hanover forcing the Army of Observation, intended to defend the Electorate, to Stade
on the North Sea
coast. At the Convention of Klosterzeven
the Duke of Cumberland agreed to disband his army and acknowledge the French occupation of the Electorate.
Following pressure by his British ministers, George II renounced the Convention and the German troops returned to active operations. By spring 1758 under a new commander the Allied forces had driven the French out of Hanover and pushed them back across the River Rhine.
between Britain and France in North America
in 1754, the French leadership saw that the limited population, troops and resources available in French Canada
meant it would ultimately fall to the British if the war was prolonged, and decided to try and gain an equivalent in Europe to exchange for Canada at the negotiating table.
Since 1714 Britain and the Electorate of Hanover
had shared a single monarch. George II
was ruler of both states – and the French believed they could exert pressure on him as King of Great Britain by occupying Hanover. In response Britain initially planned to hire 50,000 Russian
troops to defend Hanover but later altered the plan by making an alliance with Prussia
and forming an Army of Observation composed of Hanoverian, Brunswick and Hessian troops mostly paid for by the British government. A number of British officers, such as Jeffrey Amherst and Guy Carleton
, were given commands in the force. It was placed under the command of the Duke of Cumberland, second son of George II. The name Army of Observation expressed a hope that the army would serve as a deterrent and their role would merely be to observe. In early 1756, when a French invasion of the British Isles seemed imminent, many of the Hanoverian and Hessian troops were shipped to southern England to boost its defences. As the threat of invasion subsided, the troops were then shipped back to Germany again.
The prospect of fighting in Western Germany
coincided with a dispute between Austria and Prussia, who went to war in 1756. Following the First Treaty of Versailles, Austria and France formed Franco-Austrian Alliance
and sought to defeat the German allies in turn in 1757. First a major French force would sweep through Western Germany defeating and occupying Hanover, and the French would swing to attack Prussia from the west while Austria came from the south. France began building up a large force known as the Army of Westphalia
under the Duc d'Estrées.
In early June 1757, the French army began to advance towards Hanover once it became clear that there was to be no negotiated agreement. The first skirmish between the two forces had taken place on 3 May. Part of the French army was delayed by the Siege of Geldern which took three months to capture from its Prussian garrison of 800. The bulk of the French army advanced across the Rhine, advancing slowly because of the difficulties of logistics
for moving an army estimated at around 100,000.
In the face of this advance, the smaller German Army of Observation retreated back across the River Weser into the territory of the Electorate of Hanover itself, while Cumberland tried to ready his troops. On 2 July the Prussian port of Emden
fell to the French before a Royal Navy
squadron sent to relieve it could reach there. This cut Hanover off from the Dutch Republic
meaning that supplies from Britain could now only be shipped direct by sea. The French followed this up by seizing Cassel
, securing their right flank.
, who had recently distinguished himself leading the French forces that had captured Minorca. Richilieu's orders followed the original strategy of taking total control of Hanover, and then turning west to offer assistance to the Austrians attacking Prussia.
– hoping that the sudden threat would compel the French to withdraw troops from Germany to protect the French coast against further attacks. Under Richelieu the French continued their drive, taking Minden
and then capturing the city of Hanover
on 11 August.
Richelieu despatched a force to occupy Brunswick
. Frederick the Great then decided to withdraw the Prussian contingent of Cumberland's army so they could rejoin his own forces further weakening the Army of Observation.
The Hanoverian government retreated with Cumberland via Verden
to Stade
, Bremen-Verden
's capital and a port town connected to the North Sea
by the River Elbe. Although it was well-fortified and could be supplied form sea, Cumberland believed their situation to be precarious. The proposal that a large number of British reinforcements be diverted to Stade was rejected, and the British expedition
was sent to its original destination of Rochefort
, although it was launched too late to do anything to provide a diversion in support of Cumberland. Orders were sent to Captain Hyde Parker
to use his Royal Navy squadron to keep open the supply route down the Elbe to Cumberland until the onset of ice
prevented him. The deployment of this squadron left Richelieu to believe that Cumberland's position in Stade was secure, as he could not be defeated through lack of food and supplies. Morale in the French army had now collapsed, and many troops had been immobilised by illness. Richelieu was now open to a negotiated settlement – a prospect he had rejected on 21 August when Cumberland had proposed an armistice
.
King of Denmark was obligated by treaty to send troops to defend the Duchies of Bremen and Verden, both ruled in personal union
with Britain and Hanover, if they were threatened by a foreign power. As he was eager to preserve his country's neutrality, he attempted to broker an agreement between the two commanders. Richelieu believing his army was in any condition to attack Klosterzeven, was receptive to the proposal as was Cumberland who was not optimistic about his own prospects.
On 10 September at Klosterzeven the British and French signed the Convention of Klosterzeven
which secured the immediate end of hostilities. The terms called for several conditions. The national contingents from Brunswick and Hesse would return to their homelands. Half the Hanoverian force would be interned at Stade, while the remainder were to withdraw across the River Elbe. Most of Hanover would be under French occupation, except for a demilitarised zone. The French would evacuate the Duchy of Bremen, provided the British withdrew their ships from the River Weser. However, a number of issues were left vague and poorly defined leading to later dispute and controversy. Following the convention the Army of Observation began to disperse, though they were not required to surrender their weapons. However some of the Hessians were forcibly disarmed by French troops, in apparent violation of the terms.
The Convention was immediately attacked in Britain, and despite having given Cumberland authorisation to negotiate terms George II angrily rebuked his son on his return to London in October, compelling Cumberland to resign all his military offices. Richelieu also faced strong criticism from Paris
where the terms were perceived as far too lenient. He had decided it was too late in the year to now commit his forces to a full attack on Prussia which would have to wait until the following year. Instead he moved his forces to take up winter quarters around Halberstadt
. This was in spite of the fact he had instruction to besiege the Prussian fortress of Magdeburg
.
The British government, seeing the terms agreed at Klosterzeven as contravening their own agreement with Prussia announced that they were not bound by it. They also began to lobby George II and his Hanoverian ministers to abandon the convention and re-enter the war. On 8 October George II revoked the agreement because of a technicality concerning the French interference with Hessian forces returning home. As the French were themselves dissatisfied by the agreement, they were also prepared to accept a return to hostilities.
Directed by the British, the Hanoverians began to reform the Army of Observation and selected Ferdinand of Brunswick, a Prussian commander and brother-in-law of Frederick the Great, as its new commander. The British now agreed to take over the payment of Hanoverian troops as well as other contingents. This marked a sudden reversal in the policies of William Pitt
, as he had previously been opposed to further British financial commitments to a continental war. However, he still insisted that no British troops would be sent to join Brunswick's army.
Ferdinand immediately began reforms of the forces placed under his command, and he tried to instil a fresh spirit into the Hanoverians. He was helped by the fact that the French troops had committed various acts of brutality that had turned the civilian population against the occupiers.
Following Frederick the Great's victory over the French at Rossbach
, Ferdinand launched a winter
campaign – an unusual strategy at the time – against the French occupiers. The condition of the French forces had deteriorated by this point and Richelieu began to withdraw rather than face a major battle. Shortly afterwards he resigned his post and was replaced by Louis, Count of Clermont. Clermont wrote to Louis XV describing the poor conditions of his army, which he claimed was made up of looters and casualties. Richelieu was accused of various misdemeanours including stealing the pay of his own soldiers.
Ferdinand's counter attack saw the Allied forces re-capture the port of Emden
and drive the French back across the River Rhine so that by the Spring Hanover had been liberated. Despite the French having been seemingly close to their goal of total victory in Europe by late 1757 – early 1758 began to reveal a shift in the overall fortunes of the war as Britain and its allies began to have more success around the globe.
compelled France to evacuate all their forces from Germany and the Austrian Netherlands.
In the later American War of Independence France signed a neutrality
convention with Hanover, ruling out a French attack on Hanoverian soil. This was a recognition by the French leadership that it had been a mistake to attack Hanover in 1757 and pour so many troops and resources into the attempt to retake it – while British forces had been free to attack French colonies in the West Indies, Canada
, Africa
and India
.
Seven Years' War
The Seven Years' War was a global military war between 1756 and 1763, involving most of the great powers of the time and affecting Europe, North America, Central America, the West African coast, India, and the Philippines...
when a French
Kingdom of France
The Kingdom of France was one of the most powerful states to exist in Europe during the second millennium.It originated from the Western portion of the Frankish empire, and consolidated significant power and influence over the next thousand years. Louis XIV, also known as the Sun King, developed a...
army under Louis Charles César Le Tellier, duc d'Estrées
Louis Charles César Le Tellier, duc d'Estrées
Louis Charles César Le Tellier known as the Duke of Estrées was a French military commander and Marshal of France.-Biography:...
advanced into Electorate of Hanover
Electorate of Hanover
The Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg was the ninth Electorate of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation...
and neighbouring German states following the Battle of Hastenbeck
Battle of Hastenbeck
The Battle of Hastenbeck was fought as part of the Invasion of Hanover during the Seven Year's War between the allied forces of Hanover, Hesse-Kassel and Brunswick and the French...
. French forces overran most of Hanover forcing the Army of Observation, intended to defend the Electorate, to Stade
Stade
Stade is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany and part of the Hamburg Metropolitan Region . It is the seat of the district named after it...
on the North Sea
North Sea
In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively...
coast. At the Convention of Klosterzeven
Convention of Klosterzeven
The Convention of Klosterzeven was a 1757 convention signed at Klosterzeven between France and the Electorate of Hanover during the Seven Years' War that led to Hanover's withdrawal from the war and partial occupation by French forces. It came in the wake of the Battle of Hastenbeck in which...
the Duke of Cumberland agreed to disband his army and acknowledge the French occupation of the Electorate.
Following pressure by his British ministers, George II renounced the Convention and the German troops returned to active operations. By spring 1758 under a new commander the Allied forces had driven the French out of Hanover and pushed them back across the River Rhine.
Background
Following the outbreak of the first fightingFrench and Indian War
The French and Indian War is the common American name for the war between Great Britain and France in North America from 1754 to 1763. In 1756, the war erupted into the world-wide conflict known as the Seven Years' War and thus came to be regarded as the North American theater of that war...
between Britain and France in North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
in 1754, the French leadership saw that the limited population, troops and resources available in French Canada
French Canada
French Canada, also known as "Lower Canada", is a term to distinguish the French Canadian population of Canada from English Canada.-Definition:...
meant it would ultimately fall to the British if the war was prolonged, and decided to try and gain an equivalent in Europe to exchange for Canada at the negotiating table.
Since 1714 Britain and the Electorate of Hanover
Electorate of Hanover
The Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg was the ninth Electorate of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation...
had shared a single monarch. George II
George II of Great Britain
George II was King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Archtreasurer and Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire from 11 June 1727 until his death.George was the last British monarch born outside Great Britain. He was born and brought up in Northern Germany...
was ruler of both states – and the French believed they could exert pressure on him as King of Great Britain by occupying Hanover. In response Britain initially planned to hire 50,000 Russian
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
troops to defend Hanover but later altered the plan by making an alliance with Prussia
Anglo-Prussian Alliance
The Anglo-Prussian Alliance was a military alliance created by the Westminster Convention between Great Britain and Prussia which lasted formally between 1756 and 1762 during the Seven Years' War. It allowed Britain to concentrate the majority of its efforts against the colonial possessions of the...
and forming an Army of Observation composed of Hanoverian, Brunswick and Hessian troops mostly paid for by the British government. A number of British officers, such as Jeffrey Amherst and Guy Carleton
Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester
Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester, KB , known between 1776 and 1786 as Sir Guy Carleton, was an Irish-British soldier and administrator...
, were given commands in the force. It was placed under the command of the Duke of Cumberland, second son of George II. The name Army of Observation expressed a hope that the army would serve as a deterrent and their role would merely be to observe. In early 1756, when a French invasion of the British Isles seemed imminent, many of the Hanoverian and Hessian troops were shipped to southern England to boost its defences. As the threat of invasion subsided, the troops were then shipped back to Germany again.
The prospect of fighting in Western Germany
Western Germany
The geographic term Western Germany is used to describe a region in the west of Germany. The exact area defined by the term is not constant, but it usually includes, but does not have the borders of, North Rhine-Westphalia and Hesse...
coincided with a dispute between Austria and Prussia, who went to war in 1756. Following the First Treaty of Versailles, Austria and France formed Franco-Austrian Alliance
Franco-Austrian Alliance
The Franco-Austrian Alliance was a diplomatic and military alliance between France and Austria that was first established in 1756 following the First Treaty of Versailles which lasted for much of the remainder of the century until it was abandoned during the French Revolution.The Alliance had its...
and sought to defeat the German allies in turn in 1757. First a major French force would sweep through Western Germany defeating and occupying Hanover, and the French would swing to attack Prussia from the west while Austria came from the south. France began building up a large force known as the Army of Westphalia
Westphalia
Westphalia is a region in Germany, centred on the cities of Arnsberg, Bielefeld, Dortmund, Minden and Münster.Westphalia is roughly the region between the rivers Rhine and Weser, located north and south of the Ruhr River. No exact definition of borders can be given, because the name "Westphalia"...
under the Duc d'Estrées.
Invasion
Logistics
Logistics is the management of the flow of goods between the point of origin and the point of destination in order to meet the requirements of customers or corporations. Logistics involves the integration of information, transportation, inventory, warehousing, material handling, and packaging, and...
for moving an army estimated at around 100,000.
In the face of this advance, the smaller German Army of Observation retreated back across the River Weser into the territory of the Electorate of Hanover itself, while Cumberland tried to ready his troops. On 2 July the Prussian port of Emden
Emden
Emden is a city and seaport in the northwest of Germany, on the river Ems. It is the main city of the region of East Frisia; in 2006, the city had a total population of 51,692.-History:...
fell to the French before a Royal Navy
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the British Armed Forces. Founded in the 16th century, it is the oldest service branch and is known as the Senior Service...
squadron sent to relieve it could reach there. This cut Hanover off from the Dutch Republic
Dutch Republic
The Dutch Republic — officially known as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands , the Republic of the United Netherlands, or the Republic of the Seven United Provinces — was a republic in Europe existing from 1581 to 1795, preceding the Batavian Republic and ultimately...
meaning that supplies from Britain could now only be shipped direct by sea. The French followed this up by seizing Cassel
Kassel
Kassel is a town located on the Fulda River in northern Hesse, Germany. It is the administrative seat of the Kassel Regierungsbezirk and the Kreis of the same name and has approximately 195,000 inhabitants.- History :...
, securing their right flank.
Battle of Hastenbeck
By late July, Cumberland believed his army was ready for battle and adopted a defensive position around the village of Hastenbeck. The French won a narrow victory over him there, but as Cumberland retreated his force began to disintegrate as morale collapsed. Despite his victory d'Estrées was shortly afterwards replaced as commander of the French army by the Duc de RichelieuLouis François Armand du Plessis, duc de Richelieu
Armand de Vignerot du Plessis was a French soldier, diplomat and statesman. Joining the army, he participated in three major wars and eventually rose to the rank of Marshal of France....
, who had recently distinguished himself leading the French forces that had captured Minorca. Richilieu's orders followed the original strategy of taking total control of Hanover, and then turning west to offer assistance to the Austrians attacking Prussia.
Occupation of Hanover
Cumberland's forces continued to withdraw northwards. The French pursuit was slowed by further problems with supplies, but they continued to steadily pursue the retreating Army of Observation. In an effort to cause a diversion and provide some relief to Cumberland, the British planned an expedition to raid the French coastal town of RochefortRochefort, Charente-Maritime
Rochefort is a commune in southwestern France, a port on the Charente estuary. It is a sub-prefecture of the Charente-Maritime department.-History:...
– hoping that the sudden threat would compel the French to withdraw troops from Germany to protect the French coast against further attacks. Under Richelieu the French continued their drive, taking Minden
Minden
Minden is a town of about 83,000 inhabitants in the north-east of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. The town extends along both sides of the river Weser. It is the capital of the Kreis of Minden-Lübbecke, which is part of the region of Detmold. Minden is the historic political centre of the...
and then capturing the city of Hanover
Hanover
Hanover or Hannover, on the river Leine, is the capital of the federal state of Lower Saxony , Germany and was once by personal union the family seat of the Hanoverian Kings of Great Britain, under their title as the dukes of Brunswick-Lüneburg...
on 11 August.
Richelieu despatched a force to occupy Brunswick
Braunschweig
Braunschweig , is a city of 247,400 people, located in the federal-state of Lower Saxony, Germany. It is located north of the Harz mountains at the farthest navigable point of the Oker river, which connects to the North Sea via the rivers Aller and Weser....
. Frederick the Great then decided to withdraw the Prussian contingent of Cumberland's army so they could rejoin his own forces further weakening the Army of Observation.
The Hanoverian government retreated with Cumberland via Verden
Verden
Verden can refer to:* Verden an der Aller, a town in Lower Saxony, Germany* Verden, Oklahoma, a small town in the USA* Verden , a district in Lower Saxony, Germany...
to Stade
Stade
Stade is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany and part of the Hamburg Metropolitan Region . It is the seat of the district named after it...
, Bremen-Verden
Bremen-Verden
Bremen-Verden, formally the Duchies of Bremen and Verden , were two territories and immediate fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire, which emerged and gained Imperial immediacy in 1180...
's capital and a port town connected to the North Sea
North Sea
In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively...
by the River Elbe. Although it was well-fortified and could be supplied form sea, Cumberland believed their situation to be precarious. The proposal that a large number of British reinforcements be diverted to Stade was rejected, and the British expedition
Raid on Rochefort
The Raid on Rochefort was a British amphibious attempt to capture the French Atlantic port of Rochefort in September 1757 during the Seven Years War...
was sent to its original destination of Rochefort
Rochefort, Charente-Maritime
Rochefort is a commune in southwestern France, a port on the Charente estuary. It is a sub-prefecture of the Charente-Maritime department.-History:...
, although it was launched too late to do anything to provide a diversion in support of Cumberland. Orders were sent to Captain Hyde Parker
Sir Hyde Parker, 5th Baronet
Vice-Admiral Sir Hyde Parker, 5th Baronet was a British naval commander.Parker was born at Tredington, Gloucestershire. His father, a clergyman, was a son of Sir Henry Parker. His paternal grandfather had married a daughter of Alexander Hyde, Bishop of Salisbury. He began his career at sea in the...
to use his Royal Navy squadron to keep open the supply route down the Elbe to Cumberland until the onset of ice
Ice
Ice is water frozen into the solid state. Usually ice is the phase known as ice Ih, which is the most abundant of the varying solid phases on the Earth's surface. It can appear transparent or opaque bluish-white color, depending on the presence of impurities or air inclusions...
prevented him. The deployment of this squadron left Richelieu to believe that Cumberland's position in Stade was secure, as he could not be defeated through lack of food and supplies. Morale in the French army had now collapsed, and many troops had been immobilised by illness. Richelieu was now open to a negotiated settlement – a prospect he had rejected on 21 August when Cumberland had proposed an armistice
Armistice
An armistice is a situation in a war where the warring parties agree to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, but may be just a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace...
.
Convention of Klosterzeven
Frederick VFrederick V of Denmark
Frederick V was king of Denmark and Norway from 1746, son of Christian VI of Denmark and Sophia Magdalen of Brandenburg-Kulmbach.-Early life:...
King of Denmark was obligated by treaty to send troops to defend the Duchies of Bremen and Verden, both ruled in personal union
Personal union
A personal union is the combination by which two or more different states have the same monarch while their boundaries, their laws and their interests remain distinct. It should not be confused with a federation which is internationally considered a single state...
with Britain and Hanover, if they were threatened by a foreign power. As he was eager to preserve his country's neutrality, he attempted to broker an agreement between the two commanders. Richelieu believing his army was in any condition to attack Klosterzeven, was receptive to the proposal as was Cumberland who was not optimistic about his own prospects.
On 10 September at Klosterzeven the British and French signed the Convention of Klosterzeven
Convention of Klosterzeven
The Convention of Klosterzeven was a 1757 convention signed at Klosterzeven between France and the Electorate of Hanover during the Seven Years' War that led to Hanover's withdrawal from the war and partial occupation by French forces. It came in the wake of the Battle of Hastenbeck in which...
which secured the immediate end of hostilities. The terms called for several conditions. The national contingents from Brunswick and Hesse would return to their homelands. Half the Hanoverian force would be interned at Stade, while the remainder were to withdraw across the River Elbe. Most of Hanover would be under French occupation, except for a demilitarised zone. The French would evacuate the Duchy of Bremen, provided the British withdrew their ships from the River Weser. However, a number of issues were left vague and poorly defined leading to later dispute and controversy. Following the convention the Army of Observation began to disperse, though they were not required to surrender their weapons. However some of the Hessians were forcibly disarmed by French troops, in apparent violation of the terms.
The Convention was immediately attacked in Britain, and despite having given Cumberland authorisation to negotiate terms George II angrily rebuked his son on his return to London in October, compelling Cumberland to resign all his military offices. Richelieu also faced strong criticism from Paris
Paris
Paris is the capital and largest city in France, situated on the river Seine, in northern France, at the heart of the Île-de-France region...
where the terms were perceived as far too lenient. He had decided it was too late in the year to now commit his forces to a full attack on Prussia which would have to wait until the following year. Instead he moved his forces to take up winter quarters around Halberstadt
Halberstadt
Halberstadt is a town in the German state of Saxony-Anhalt and the capital of the district of Harz. It is located on the German Half-Timbered House Road and the Magdeburg–Thale railway....
. This was in spite of the fact he had instruction to besiege the Prussian fortress of Magdeburg
Magdeburg
Magdeburg , is the largest city and the capital city of the Bundesland of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Magdeburg is situated on the Elbe River and was one of the most important medieval cities of Europe....
.
The British government, seeing the terms agreed at Klosterzeven as contravening their own agreement with Prussia announced that they were not bound by it. They also began to lobby George II and his Hanoverian ministers to abandon the convention and re-enter the war. On 8 October George II revoked the agreement because of a technicality concerning the French interference with Hessian forces returning home. As the French were themselves dissatisfied by the agreement, they were also prepared to accept a return to hostilities.
Directed by the British, the Hanoverians began to reform the Army of Observation and selected Ferdinand of Brunswick, a Prussian commander and brother-in-law of Frederick the Great, as its new commander. The British now agreed to take over the payment of Hanoverian troops as well as other contingents. This marked a sudden reversal in the policies of William Pitt
William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham
William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham PC was a British Whig statesman who led Britain during the Seven Years' War...
, as he had previously been opposed to further British financial commitments to a continental war. However, he still insisted that no British troops would be sent to join Brunswick's army.
Allied counter-attack
Following Frederick the Great's victory over the French at Rossbach
Battle of Rossbach
The Battle of Rossbach took place during the Seven Years' War near the village of Roßbach, in the Electorate of Saxony. Frederick the Great defeated the allied armies of France and the Holy Roman/Austrian Empire...
, Ferdinand launched a winter
Winter
Winter is the coldest season of the year in temperate climates, between autumn and spring. At the winter solstice, the days are shortest and the nights are longest, with days lengthening as the season progresses after the solstice.-Meteorology:...
campaign – an unusual strategy at the time – against the French occupiers. The condition of the French forces had deteriorated by this point and Richelieu began to withdraw rather than face a major battle. Shortly afterwards he resigned his post and was replaced by Louis, Count of Clermont. Clermont wrote to Louis XV describing the poor conditions of his army, which he claimed was made up of looters and casualties. Richelieu was accused of various misdemeanours including stealing the pay of his own soldiers.
Ferdinand's counter attack saw the Allied forces re-capture the port of Emden
Emden
Emden is a city and seaport in the northwest of Germany, on the river Ems. It is the main city of the region of East Frisia; in 2006, the city had a total population of 51,692.-History:...
and drive the French back across the River Rhine so that by the Spring Hanover had been liberated. Despite the French having been seemingly close to their goal of total victory in Europe by late 1757 – early 1758 began to reveal a shift in the overall fortunes of the war as Britain and its allies began to have more success around the globe.
Aftermath
Despite the setback in 1758, it was still a central part of French strategy to recapture Hanover and use it as a bargaining counter for lost French territories. This particularly became the case following the fall of Quebec in 1759. The French committed increasingly large forces in their attempt to defeat Ferdinand's army and occupy Hanover. Despite a large build up of French forces and repeated efforts they were unable to break through and capture Hanover again. Following the defeat of the final French attempt at the Battle of Wilhelmsthal in 1762, an armistice was agreed and the later Treaty of ParisTreaty of Paris (1763)
The Treaty of Paris, often called the Peace of Paris, or the Treaty of 1763, was signed on 10 February 1763, by the kingdoms of Great Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement. It ended the French and Indian War/Seven Years' War...
compelled France to evacuate all their forces from Germany and the Austrian Netherlands.
In the later American War of Independence France signed a neutrality
Neutrality (international relations)
A neutral power in a particular war is a sovereign state which declares itself to be neutral towards the belligerents. A non-belligerent state does not need to be neutral. The rights and duties of a neutral power are defined in Sections 5 and 13 of the Hague Convention of 1907...
convention with Hanover, ruling out a French attack on Hanoverian soil. This was a recognition by the French leadership that it had been a mistake to attack Hanover in 1757 and pour so many troops and resources into the attempt to retake it – while British forces had been free to attack French colonies in the West Indies, Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
and India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
.