In absentia health care
Encyclopedia
The most common mode of healthcare delivery is through personal, face-to-face contact between a healthcare provider and a beneficiary (patient
). There is, however, an increasing trend towards the provision of healthcare in the absence of a personal contact: this is known as 'in absentia health care'.
This, however, may not be necessary for care; in fact current technologies permit with no prior or concurrent contact. Some people argue that this type of in absentia medical care may derail the traditional sequences of examination, diagnosis and treatment, and that such a detour may challenge existing values of modern medicine. In absentia care assumes heightened relevance today because it is both convenient and risky.
Easy questionnaire-based online access to healthcare is convenient. The same resources provide hazardous pharmaceuticals, addicting and life style altering drugs.
On the other hand, for some people with busy lives but a sensible attitude, it can be both cheaper and more convenient to receive an online diagnosis, and then to purchase one's medicines from a virtual chemist.
On the one hand, aspects of online medicine have been described as an "asynchronous written exchange," and a "disembodied relationship," with "few analogues or precedents in medical practice." This trend has also been viewed as perhaps "anarchic" with potential to "set off a revolution in remote care" and promote "self-diagnosis." (p144-145) The safety of online consultations by "Cyberdoctors" has also been seriously questioned.
On the other hand, remote in absentia medical care has fulfilled an enduring human need over several centuries. What follows is a quick tour of the past in absentia medical practices.
emphasized a tripartite system which exists even to this day. This system called for listening to the patient, before an examination. Only after an observation, or an examination, did a diagnosis follow. Treatment was undertaken as the last component. (p113-114) Observation and examination before treatment, had a central role that could not easily be circumvented. This sequence has been passed on as a tradition to us through Hippocrates
and Galen
.
During the height of Arabic and Jewish medicine (732-1096AD), diagnosis called for an orderly sequence where examination, "by the feel of the hands," played an essential role.(p134) Ideally, healing entailed contact between the patient and a healer. Still, the practice of eliminating this personal contact as a prerequisite to healing was not unheard of.
At a later time when astrology, animal products, magic and incantations were part of the healing arts, formal contact with healers may have gradually become unnecessary. Ill-health was often viewed as the result of malevolent external influences. Amulets and ligatures
were worn as barriers to ward off such evil demons. Sufferers wore them, stuck them under their pillows or hung them at doorways.(p89-90) Thus, care at a personal level by a physician was not the only means of regaining health; alternative practices were emerging.
, Herman Boerhaave
, Nathaniel Johnston, and John Morgan
.
In Europe and England between 1600 and 1800, dispensing and advising without direct contact with ailing persons had become a common practice. At that time, physical examination techniques were in their infancy. Auscultation
(listening to the chest with a stethoscope) and ophthalmoscopy
(examination of the interior of the eyes) had not found their way into the discipline of an examination until the early-to-mid-19th century.
At best, most physicians simply observed the patient's appearance and colour, and palpated the pulse
. Any further physical examination was unnecessary.(p74)
Even as early as the 1830s, there was an attempt at reducing the subjectivity of findings and narrations. Julius Herisson, an early inventor of sphygmomanometer
(blood pressure measuring apparatus) in 1834, recommended that numerical aspects (quantitative data such as beats per minute) of pulse were more informative than their descriptive characteristics.(p199)
He had realised that actually seeing the patient was not an absolute requirement for reaching a diagnosis. This may well have been what led up to the data exchange that is now a common practice on the internet.
Not all in absentia diagnoses were based on honourable intentions: in the period 1900-1930, radio advertising arrived. Radio, much like the internet now, was a troublesome medium then. It presented new opportunities for technophiles of that period. A Kansas physician by the name of John R. Brinkley
(1885–1942) exploited this new medium to maximum advantage between the years 1928 and 1941.
Contemporary technology allows the transmission of videos, photos, and data to distant sites. It is not yet clear if this will eliminate the need for a physical examination also. Remote viewing of images and data are acceptable, but are no substitute for physical contact. This is especially the case with telemedicine
, when a physician may consult with a remotely sited consultant. Here, however, a patient-physician relationship already exists between two parties. Indeed, data exchange serves as latter day equivalent of a third party physical examination in such instances.
Technology permits this kind of healthcare without any primary contact with a qualified caregiver. This type of care, "between strangers," is of uncertain merit. It is cheaper, quicker, and more convenient at a time when - some might say - that traditional health insurance and the cost of drugs are straying beyond the reach of many. The worried-well may seek care for discomfort that past generations would have dismissed as trivial or inevitable. (p684-7)
The same electronic information technologies that aid the health-providers also empower the health-seekers who can gain easier access, whilst remaining anonymous
.(p143) While anonymity encourages honesty, it can sometimes mask a poor level of care, and perhaps even greed of some "caregivers".
Over time, barriers to access such as cost, inconvenience or embarrassment have encouraged patients to seek out in absentia care. The ultimate "balance sheet" of risks and benefits of remote care is yet to emerge. What is clear, however, is that in absentia care is not by any means a new phenomenon: e-doctors practising telemedicine
is simply a technological variation on a theme as old as medicine itself.
Patient
A patient is any recipient of healthcare services. The patient is most often ill or injured and in need of treatment by a physician, advanced practice registered nurse, veterinarian, or other health care provider....
). There is, however, an increasing trend towards the provision of healthcare in the absence of a personal contact: this is known as 'in absentia health care'.
Health care without face-to-face contact
In absentia healthcare or distance medicine occurs when the patient and care giver are at different locations but still communicate by audio and video - or sometimes without any personal contact. A face-to-face contact is often a necessary prelude to rendering health care.This, however, may not be necessary for care; in fact current technologies permit with no prior or concurrent contact. Some people argue that this type of in absentia medical care may derail the traditional sequences of examination, diagnosis and treatment, and that such a detour may challenge existing values of modern medicine. In absentia care assumes heightened relevance today because it is both convenient and risky.
Easy questionnaire-based online access to healthcare is convenient. The same resources provide hazardous pharmaceuticals, addicting and life style altering drugs.
On the other hand, for some people with busy lives but a sensible attitude, it can be both cheaper and more convenient to receive an online diagnosis, and then to purchase one's medicines from a virtual chemist.
A history of in absentia care
In order to fairly weigh up whether in absentia care is beneficial or dangerous, it is helpful to examine the past, because remote care is not simply a phenomenon of the cyber era. The roots of in absentia care reach deeply to ancient times, mixing with medical lore over nearly two thousand years.On the one hand, aspects of online medicine have been described as an "asynchronous written exchange," and a "disembodied relationship," with "few analogues or precedents in medical practice." This trend has also been viewed as perhaps "anarchic" with potential to "set off a revolution in remote care" and promote "self-diagnosis." (p144-145) The safety of online consultations by "Cyberdoctors" has also been seriously questioned.
On the other hand, remote in absentia medical care has fulfilled an enduring human need over several centuries. What follows is a quick tour of the past in absentia medical practices.
Ancient practices
Ancient EgyptAncient Egypt
Ancient Egypt was an ancient civilization of Northeastern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. Egyptian civilization coalesced around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh...
emphasized a tripartite system which exists even to this day. This system called for listening to the patient, before an examination. Only after an observation, or an examination, did a diagnosis follow. Treatment was undertaken as the last component. (p113-114) Observation and examination before treatment, had a central role that could not easily be circumvented. This sequence has been passed on as a tradition to us through Hippocrates
Hippocrates
Hippocrates of Cos or Hippokrates of Kos was an ancient Greek physician of the Age of Pericles , and is considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine...
and Galen
Galen
Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus , better known as Galen of Pergamon , was a prominent Roman physician, surgeon and philosopher...
.
During the height of Arabic and Jewish medicine (732-1096AD), diagnosis called for an orderly sequence where examination, "by the feel of the hands," played an essential role.(p134) Ideally, healing entailed contact between the patient and a healer. Still, the practice of eliminating this personal contact as a prerequisite to healing was not unheard of.
At a later time when astrology, animal products, magic and incantations were part of the healing arts, formal contact with healers may have gradually become unnecessary. Ill-health was often viewed as the result of malevolent external influences. Amulets and ligatures
Ligature (medicine)
In surgery or medical procedure, a ligature consists of a piece of thread tied around an anatomical structure, usually a blood vessel or another hollow structure to shut it off. With a blood vessel the surgeon will clamp the vessel perpendicular to the axis of the artery or vein with a hemostat,...
were worn as barriers to ward off such evil demons. Sufferers wore them, stuck them under their pillows or hung them at doorways.(p89-90) Thus, care at a personal level by a physician was not the only means of regaining health; alternative practices were emerging.
Galen
- GalenGalenAelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus , better known as Galen of Pergamon , was a prominent Roman physician, surgeon and philosopher...
(129-200 A.D.) chose, at times, to prescribe to patients without ever seeing them. Apparently, Galen was so skilled in understanding symptomatology that there were times when he preferred to diagnose without questioning the patient. He then went on to prescribe by mail with confidence.(p172-174),(p505-506)
- His elevated status permitted him to offer consultations by letter. He would receive generous rewards for his postal consultations: in one instance, it is said that he had received 400 gold pieces for curing a woman in this fashion. (p172)(p121)
More recent historical practices
Many illustrious English and European physicians had practiced medicine by post, including William CullenWilliam Cullen
William Cullen FRS FRSE FRCPE FPSG was a Scottish physician, chemist and agriculturalist, and one of the most important professors at the Edinburgh Medical School, during its heyday as the leading center of medical education in the English-speaking world.Cullen was also a central figure in the...
, Herman Boerhaave
Herman Boerhaave
Herman Boerhaave was a Dutch botanist, humanist and physician of European fame. He is regarded as the founder of clinical teaching and of the modern academic hospital. His main achievement was to demonstrate the relation of symptoms to lesions...
, Nathaniel Johnston, and John Morgan
John Morgan
-Arts and entertainment:*John Morgan , British painter*John Morgan , Welsh clergyman, scholar and poet*John Morgan , American broadcaster and television producer...
.
Renaudot
- The French physician and philanthropistPhilanthropistA philanthropist is someone who engages in philanthropy; that is, someone who donates his or her time, money, and/or reputation to charitable causes...
Théophraste RenaudotThéophraste RenaudotThéophraste Renaudot was a French physician, philanthropist, and journalist.Born in Loudun, Renaudot received a doctorate of medicine from the University of Montpellier in 1606. He returned to Loudon where he met Cardinal Richelieu and Père Joseph. In the 1610s, Richelieu became more powerful and...
(1584-1653) established a Paris practice that offered free treatment to the sick who were too poor to engage a physician. Renaudot's published a booklet titled, "La presence des absence" (The Presence of the Absent) listed a series of symptoms and carried diagrams of body parts. Patients were required to identify symptoms and check off body parts that hurt. This booklet enabled a patient to receive a diagnosis and treatment by post without a personal visit to the physician. (p209)
In Europe and England between 1600 and 1800, dispensing and advising without direct contact with ailing persons had become a common practice. At that time, physical examination techniques were in their infancy. Auscultation
Auscultation
Auscultation is the term for listening to the internal sounds of the body, usually using a stethoscope...
(listening to the chest with a stethoscope) and ophthalmoscopy
Ophthalmoscopy
Ophthalmoscopy is a test that allows a health professional to see inside the fundus of the eye and other structures using an ophthalmoscope . It is done as part of an eye examination and may be done as part of a routine physical examination...
(examination of the interior of the eyes) had not found their way into the discipline of an examination until the early-to-mid-19th century.
At best, most physicians simply observed the patient's appearance and colour, and palpated the pulse
Pulse
In medicine, one's pulse represents the tactile arterial palpation of the heartbeat by trained fingertips. The pulse may be palpated in any place that allows an artery to be compressed against a bone, such as at the neck , at the wrist , behind the knee , on the inside of the elbow , and near the...
. Any further physical examination was unnecessary.(p74)
Heberdeen
- William HeberdenWilliam HeberdenWilliam Heberden , English physician, was born in London, where he received the early part of his education.At the end of 1724 he was sent to St John's College, Cambridge, where he obtained a fellowship, around 1730, became master of arts in 1732, and took the degree of MD in 1739...
(1710-1801), of angina pectoris (chest pain indicative of impaired blood supply to the heart muscle, and an impending heart attack) fame, had a reputation for his diagnostic skills merely through his "expert gaze."(p45) Diagnosis depended heavily on the listener's interpretive skills, and treatment relied more on compassion than medicinal chemistry. The conversations with the patients revealed more clues than the actual examination did.(p4) Thus, this was an environment which tolerated and even nurtured therapeutic initiatives without physical contact with doctors.
Boerhaave
- The new-found notion of physical diagnosis was not the only reason for the growth of in absentia practice in the 17th and 18th centuries. Another major obstacle to face-to-face contact was the difficulty posed by distance and poor travel conditions. Because of this it was convenient for patients and their caregivers to seek medical help by writing to physicians of repute.(p76-78)
- Hermann Boerhaave (1668-1738) was at ease with such a concept and practice. He dispensed advice to other colleagues and apothecaries by mail.(p300-301) Erasmus DarwinErasmus DarwinErasmus Darwin was an English physician who turned down George III's invitation to be a physician to the King. One of the key thinkers of the Midlands Enlightenment, he was also a natural philosopher, physiologist, slave trade abolitionist,inventor and poet...
(1731-1802), grandfather of Charles DarwinCharles DarwinCharles Robert Darwin FRS was an English naturalist. He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection.He published his theory...
, treated a patient with dizziness, not by seeing him but by recommending "scarifications" (making scars) on the back.(p77-78)
Cullen
- William CullenWilliam CullenWilliam Cullen FRS FRSE FRCPE FPSG was a Scottish physician, chemist and agriculturalist, and one of the most important professors at the Edinburgh Medical School, during its heyday as the leading center of medical education in the English-speaking world.Cullen was also a central figure in the...
(1710-1790) of Edinburgh, Scotland had engaged in a flourishing mail order practice.135-139 In his early years of practice between 1764 and 1774, Cullen wrote approximately 20 consultation letters per year. This number jumped markedly to almost 200 a year from 1774 till his death in 1790. He had used an amanuensisAmanuensisAmanuensis is a Latin word adopted in various languages, including English, for certain persons performing a function by hand, either writing down the words of another or performing manual labour...
and an early version of a copying machine to make it quicker and easier for him to respond.(p136) If he did not know the condition well, he cautiously avoided making a diagnosis.(p145) For the acutely ill, he preferred hospital admission and personal care. Cullen had recognized long ago the limitations of in absentia care.
Morgan
- John MorganJohn Morgan (physician)John Morgan was co-founder of the Medical College at the University of Pennsylvania, the first medical school in Colonial America; and he served as the second "Chief physician & director general" of the Continental Army...
(1735-1789) of Philadelphia, a founder of the University of Pennsylvania medical school in 1765, was equally active with regard to postal consultations. Morgan had studied under Cullen in Edinburgh between 1761 and 1764. He had announced his willingness to consult by post for those patients residing at a distance from Philadelphia.(p6) In absentia mail order treatments were popular, and moreover, turned out to be quite profitable.
Johnston
- In addition to letters from patients, early physicians also recognised the importance of examining bodily excretions in establishing a diagnosis. Nathaniel Johnston (1627-1705) had carried out an extensive correspondence practice with his patients. In one instance a writer had sent a letter to him enclosing specimens of his wife's sputumSputumSputum is mucus that is coughed up from the lower airways. It is usually used for microbiological investigations of respiratory infections....
and urineUrineUrine is a typically sterile liquid by-product of the body that is secreted by the kidneys through a process called urination and excreted through the urethra. Cellular metabolism generates numerous by-products, many rich in nitrogen, that require elimination from the bloodstream...
as samples. He had hoped that Johnston might use the specimens to narrow the diagnosis of his wife's chronic cough.
Even as early as the 1830s, there was an attempt at reducing the subjectivity of findings and narrations. Julius Herisson, an early inventor of sphygmomanometer
Sphygmomanometer
A sphygmomanometer or blood pressure meter is a device used to measure blood pressure, comprising an inflatable cuff to restrict blood flow, and a mercury or mechanical manometer to measure the pressure. It is always used in conjunction with a means to determine at what pressure blood flow is just...
(blood pressure measuring apparatus) in 1834, recommended that numerical aspects (quantitative data such as beats per minute) of pulse were more informative than their descriptive characteristics.(p199)
He had realised that actually seeing the patient was not an absolute requirement for reaching a diagnosis. This may well have been what led up to the data exchange that is now a common practice on the internet.
Not all in absentia diagnoses were based on honourable intentions: in the period 1900-1930, radio advertising arrived. Radio, much like the internet now, was a troublesome medium then. It presented new opportunities for technophiles of that period. A Kansas physician by the name of John R. Brinkley
John R. Brinkley
John Romulus Brinkley was a controversial American medical doctor who experimented with xenotransplantation of goat glands into humans as a means of curing male impotence in clinics across several states, and an advertising and radio pioneer who began the era of Mexican border blaster radio...
(1885–1942) exploited this new medium to maximum advantage between the years 1928 and 1941.
John R. Brinkley
- Brinkley's life and careerJohn R. BrinkleyJohn Romulus Brinkley was a controversial American medical doctor who experimented with xenotransplantation of goat glands into humans as a means of curing male impotence in clinics across several states, and an advertising and radio pioneer who began the era of Mexican border blaster radio...
have been the subject of several books and theses. Perceiving an opportunity to advertise his skills, he exploited the emerging medium of radioRadioRadio is the transmission of signals through free space by modulation of electromagnetic waves with frequencies below those of visible light. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space...
broadcasting.(p61-89) Radio allowed him to spread the news of his surgery and also to start a "Medical Question Box." His live radio broadcasts diagnosed diseases of patients who wrote to him describing their symptoms. He then prescribed medication to his patients, having never set eyes on them; this brought him great wealth. The Federal Radio Commission, and later the Federal Communications Commission attempted to prosecute him, and much legal protesting on his part followed. In spite of this, in 1941, his radio career ended for good.
- Brinkley justified his in absentia practice using his own interpretation of the history of medicine. He cited the practice of an 18th century Swiss mountain doctor by the name of Michael Schuppach,(1707-1781). Schuppach had practiced diagnosis and treatment by drawing on the powers of nature. His reputation was such that he could diagnose illnesses by the smell of a patient's shirt, or a flask of patient's urine mailed to him.(p99) Brinkley drew from history selectively to bolster his convictions.
Comparisons
In absentia healthcare has probably existed for more than 1500 years. This enduring practice owes its longevity to need fulfillment, convenience and - in some cases - the greed of the physicians. When viewed in the context of slow travel, healing in absentia was perfectly suited to fulfill a need of patients who could not travel to see a doctor in person. Famous healers, from Galen to Cullen, engaged in mail order practice even though they generally saw people face-to-face. They had used the technology of their day to help them make diagnoses quicker and more easily, and to reach persons from further away - no different from what we do today. To arrive at a diagnosis, physical examination itself was seen as less important than hearing the patient's story. Thus, personal contact, while desirable, may not have been essential.Contemporary technology allows the transmission of videos, photos, and data to distant sites. It is not yet clear if this will eliminate the need for a physical examination also. Remote viewing of images and data are acceptable, but are no substitute for physical contact. This is especially the case with telemedicine
Telemedicine
Telemedicine is the use of telecommunication and information technologies in order to provide clinical health care at a distance. It helps eliminate distance barriers and can improve access to medical services that would often not be consistently available in distant rural communities...
, when a physician may consult with a remotely sited consultant. Here, however, a patient-physician relationship already exists between two parties. Indeed, data exchange serves as latter day equivalent of a third party physical examination in such instances.
Technology permits this kind of healthcare without any primary contact with a qualified caregiver. This type of care, "between strangers," is of uncertain merit. It is cheaper, quicker, and more convenient at a time when - some might say - that traditional health insurance and the cost of drugs are straying beyond the reach of many. The worried-well may seek care for discomfort that past generations would have dismissed as trivial or inevitable. (p684-7)
The same electronic information technologies that aid the health-providers also empower the health-seekers who can gain easier access, whilst remaining anonymous
Anonymity
Anonymity is derived from the Greek word ἀνωνυμία, anonymia, meaning "without a name" or "namelessness". In colloquial use, anonymity typically refers to the state of an individual's personal identity, or personally identifiable information, being publicly unknown.There are many reasons why a...
.(p143) While anonymity encourages honesty, it can sometimes mask a poor level of care, and perhaps even greed of some "caregivers".
Over time, barriers to access such as cost, inconvenience or embarrassment have encouraged patients to seek out in absentia care. The ultimate "balance sheet" of risks and benefits of remote care is yet to emerge. What is clear, however, is that in absentia care is not by any means a new phenomenon: e-doctors practising telemedicine
Telemedicine
Telemedicine is the use of telecommunication and information technologies in order to provide clinical health care at a distance. It helps eliminate distance barriers and can improve access to medical services that would often not be consistently available in distant rural communities...
is simply a technological variation on a theme as old as medicine itself.