Imperial Chinese tributary system
Encyclopedia
The Imperial tributary system of China was the network of trade and foreign relations between China and China's "tributaries" that, for millennia, drove much of East Asian affairs. Chinese suzerainty
over East Asia, governed and enforced through the Imperial tributary system, not only "deeply influenced the culture of the peripheral countries but also drew them into a China-centered, or "sino-centric
", international order." The Imperial tributary system dictated foreign policy and trade for over 2,000 years of Imperial China's dominance of the region, and thus played a huge role in the History of Asia
, and the History of East Asia
in particular.
Since Asian states wanting to trade with China continued to pay regular tribute to Beijing, there was little reason for the Chinese to doubt their predominance in the world order. Even the Europeans, who had first entered the Chinese waters as early as the sixteenth century, had submitted to trade within the highly restrictive Chinese system. By conforming to the conditions imposed on them and by accepting their inferior position, the Westerners strengthened the Chinese belief in the preeminence of the Middle Kingdom and in the tributary system of foreign relations.
Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet, although outside China proper, were considered within the pale, and Beijing had the right to post agents and armed forces there. Korea, the Ryukyu Islands, Annam (present-day Vietnam), Siam (Thailand), Burma (new name Myanmar), and Nepal were “tributary states,” which sent regular tribute missions.
China fought to protect some, but not all tributary states from foreign invasions. The Chinese fought in the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) and First Sino-Japanese War
to protect their tributary state in Korea from Japanese invasion.
The Ming dynasty
declined to intervene under the isolationist and anti interventionist Hongwu Emperor when the Vietnamese attacked Champa
, giving only a rebuke. The Chinese against did not intervene in the 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa
when Vietnam destroyed Champa. Both Vietnam and Champa were tributary states.
The investure of rulers of tributary nations with titles by Chinese envoys was part of the system.
Warfare between tributary states was arbitrated by the Chinese Emperor. Malacca and Vietnam were both tributaries to China. Malacca
sent envoys to China again in 1481 to inform the Chinese that while going back to Malacca in 1469 from a trip to China, the Vietnamese attacked them, castrating the young and enslaving them. The Malaccans reported that Vietnam was in control of Champa and also that the Vietnamese sought to conquer Malacca, but the Malaccans did not fight back due to lack of permission from the Chinese to engage in war. The Chinese Emperor scolded them, ordering the Malaccans to strike back with violent force if the Vietnamese attacked.
The Ryukyu Kingdom
was a tributary state to the Ming dynasty
then the Qing dynasty
. It was annexed by Japan, which caused a dispute between China and Japan. Li Hongzhang
told Ulysses S. Grant
that the Ryukyu had paid tribute to China for hundreds of years, and the Chinese reserved certrain trade rights for them in an amicable and beneficial relationship, which Li claimed they preferred to being annexed and taken over by the Japanese.
The Imperial Tributary system fully developed during the Han Dynasty
.
Hostage exchanges were part of the tributary system during the Han dynasty
. Hostages also continued to be used in the Tang dynasty
tributary system.
Confucianism
and the Mandate of Heaven
provided the ideological foundations for the tribute system. Emperor Han Wudi played a critical role in the formation of the system.
The tributary system showed cultural inferiority on part of the tributary state, and a show of reverence for the recipient of the tribute.
The Tributary system served as the manner in which Imperial Dynasties ruling China conducted all of their foreign affairs in. The last dynasty to use the system was the last dynasty standing prior to China becoming a Republic
, the Qing dynasty
.
Entering into the tribute system was a requirement for foreign countries wishing to enter into trading relations with China.
The Vietnamese, under the Nguyen Dynasty, copied the Imperial Chinese system, declaring themselves Emperors on the Chinese Confucian model and attempting to create a Vietnamese Imperial tributary system.
Suzerainty
Suzerainty occurs where a region or people is a tributary to a more powerful entity which controls its foreign affairs while allowing the tributary vassal state some limited domestic autonomy. The dominant entity in the suzerainty relationship, or the more powerful entity itself, is called a...
over East Asia, governed and enforced through the Imperial tributary system, not only "deeply influenced the culture of the peripheral countries but also drew them into a China-centered, or "sino-centric
Sinocentrism
Sinocentrism is an ethnocentric perspective that regards China to be the center of civilization and superior to all other nations. The related but distinct concept of the superiority of the Han Chinese ethnicity both within and without China is known as Han chauvinism.- Overview and context...
", international order." The Imperial tributary system dictated foreign policy and trade for over 2,000 years of Imperial China's dominance of the region, and thus played a huge role in the History of Asia
History of Asia
The history of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions such as, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian steppe....
, and the History of East Asia
History of East Asia
-Prehistory:In East Asia, the Neolithic period may have begun as early as 7500 BC. The earliest evidence suggests the existence of the Pengtoushan culture in northern Hunan province from about 7500 BC to 6100 BC and of the Peiligang culture in Henan province around from about 7000 BC to 5000...
in particular.
The System
The Chinese international structure preceded, and greatly differed from, other systems that developed in other parts of the world. First, it was premised on the belief that China was the cultural center of the universe and that all non-Chinese were uncivilized "barbarians." Second, since the Chinese ruler, “the Son of Heaven,” was considered the ruler of all humankind, all other “barbarian” rulers were mere local chieftains owing allegiance to Beijing. Thus, there could be no Western-style diplomatic relations; countries wanting to trade with China had to send “tribute” missions that legitimized China's superiority and suzerainty (via the ritual of ke-tou (kow-tow), which consisted of three kneelings, each involving three prostrations before the emperor} and in return they could trade for a specified number of days at border points designated by Beijing.Since Asian states wanting to trade with China continued to pay regular tribute to Beijing, there was little reason for the Chinese to doubt their predominance in the world order. Even the Europeans, who had first entered the Chinese waters as early as the sixteenth century, had submitted to trade within the highly restrictive Chinese system. By conforming to the conditions imposed on them and by accepting their inferior position, the Westerners strengthened the Chinese belief in the preeminence of the Middle Kingdom and in the tributary system of foreign relations.
Neighboring tributary states
Kingdoms along China's North-Western Frontier often struggled with the Imperial tributary system, and Beijing's rejection of tribute missions, and the lavish gifts and benefits gained, exacerbated, then helped soothe, the drawn-out and complex conflicts now known as the Ming-Turpan Border Wars.Mansur then abandoned large-scale military expeditions, though he continued to sanction raids on China to attain his objectives. Instead he offered tribute, occasionally dispatching a dozen or more embassies a year. He was apparently eager to obtain the Chinese gifts granted to foreign embassies, and therefore limited his incursions.
Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet, although outside China proper, were considered within the pale, and Beijing had the right to post agents and armed forces there. Korea, the Ryukyu Islands, Annam (present-day Vietnam), Siam (Thailand), Burma (new name Myanmar), and Nepal were “tributary states,” which sent regular tribute missions.
China fought to protect some, but not all tributary states from foreign invasions. The Chinese fought in the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) and First Sino-Japanese War
First Sino-Japanese War
The First Sino-Japanese War was fought between Qing Dynasty China and Meiji Japan, primarily over control of Korea...
to protect their tributary state in Korea from Japanese invasion.
The Ming dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
declined to intervene under the isolationist and anti interventionist Hongwu Emperor when the Vietnamese attacked Champa
Champa
The kingdom of Champa was an Indianized kingdom that controlled what is now southern and central Vietnam from approximately the 7th century through to 1832.The Cham people are remnants...
, giving only a rebuke. The Chinese against did not intervene in the 1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa
1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa
1471 Vietnamese invasion of Champa under Emperor Lê Thánh Tông was a military expedition that is widely regarded as marking the downfall of Champa. The Vietnamese forces attacked and sacked the capital Vijaya, and decimated the Cham army...
when Vietnam destroyed Champa. Both Vietnam and Champa were tributary states.
The investure of rulers of tributary nations with titles by Chinese envoys was part of the system.
Warfare between tributary states was arbitrated by the Chinese Emperor. Malacca and Vietnam were both tributaries to China. Malacca
Malacca
Malacca , dubbed The Historic State or Negeri Bersejarah among locals) is the third smallest Malaysian state, after Perlis and Penang. It is located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, on the Straits of Malacca. It borders Negeri Sembilan to the north and the state of Johor to the south...
sent envoys to China again in 1481 to inform the Chinese that while going back to Malacca in 1469 from a trip to China, the Vietnamese attacked them, castrating the young and enslaving them. The Malaccans reported that Vietnam was in control of Champa and also that the Vietnamese sought to conquer Malacca, but the Malaccans did not fight back due to lack of permission from the Chinese to engage in war. The Chinese Emperor scolded them, ordering the Malaccans to strike back with violent force if the Vietnamese attacked.
The Ryukyu Kingdom
Ryukyu Kingdom
The Ryūkyū Kingdom was an independent kingdom which ruled most of the Ryukyu Islands from the 15th century to the 19th century. The Kings of Ryūkyū unified Okinawa Island and extended the kingdom to the Amami Islands in modern-day Kagoshima Prefecture, and the Sakishima Islands near Taiwan...
was a tributary state to the Ming dynasty
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic...
then the Qing dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
. It was annexed by Japan, which caused a dispute between China and Japan. Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang
Li Hongzhang or Li Hung-chang , Marquis Suyi of the First Class , GCVO, was a leading statesman of the late Qing Empire...
told Ulysses S. Grant
Ulysses S. Grant
Ulysses S. Grant was the 18th President of the United States as well as military commander during the Civil War and post-war Reconstruction periods. Under Grant's command, the Union Army defeated the Confederate military and ended the Confederate States of America...
that the Ryukyu had paid tribute to China for hundreds of years, and the Chinese reserved certrain trade rights for them in an amicable and beneficial relationship, which Li claimed they preferred to being annexed and taken over by the Japanese.
The Imperial Tributary system fully developed during the Han Dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
.
Hostage exchanges were part of the tributary system during the Han dynasty
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty was the second imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms . It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty of the former regent Wang Mang...
. Hostages also continued to be used in the Tang dynasty
Tang Dynasty
The Tang Dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li family, who seized power during the decline and collapse of the Sui Empire...
tributary system.
Confucianism
Confucianism
Confucianism is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system developed from the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius . Confucianism originated as an "ethical-sociopolitical teaching" during the Spring and Autumn Period, but later developed metaphysical and cosmological elements in the Han...
and the Mandate of Heaven
Mandate of Heaven
The Mandate of Heaven is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers. It is similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings, in that both sought to legitimaze rule from divine approval; however, unlike the divine right of kings, the Mandate of...
provided the ideological foundations for the tribute system. Emperor Han Wudi played a critical role in the formation of the system.
The tributary system showed cultural inferiority on part of the tributary state, and a show of reverence for the recipient of the tribute.
The Tributary system served as the manner in which Imperial Dynasties ruling China conducted all of their foreign affairs in. The last dynasty to use the system was the last dynasty standing prior to China becoming a Republic
History of the Republic of China
The History of the Republic of China begins after the Qing Dynasty in 1912, when the formation of the Republic of China put an end to over two thousand years of Imperial rule. The Qing Dynasty, also known as the Manchu Dynasty, ruled from 1644 to 1912...
, the Qing dynasty
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China....
.
Entering into the tribute system was a requirement for foreign countries wishing to enter into trading relations with China.
The Vietnamese, under the Nguyen Dynasty, copied the Imperial Chinese system, declaring themselves Emperors on the Chinese Confucian model and attempting to create a Vietnamese Imperial tributary system.