Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War
Encyclopedia
The Hundred Years' Croatian–Ottoman War is the name for a sequence of conflicts, mostly of relatively low-intensity, ("Small War", Croatian: Mali rat) between the Kingdom of Croatia
, which in that period was ruled by a succession of dynasties (Jagiellon
, Zapolya
and the Habsburg
) and Ottoman Empire
s.
in 1493, and ended with the Battle of Sisak
in 1593.
According to the other group of historians, the war lasted from the second half of the 15th century and into the entire 16th century.
A third group of historians mark the Peace of Zsitvatorok in 1606 as the end of the war. Considering the circumstances in that all the neighbouring Balkan countries have been conquered by Ottomans, and in spite of its heavy territorial losses, the Kingdom of Croatia and the Christian allies are seen as the victors in the war, given that Croatia managed to survive and remain within the Christian territories of Europe. The war was won by the Ottoman's defeat upon their advance on the Kupa border, with the remainder of Croatia's territory consisted of only 16.800 km².
In light of the human and territorial loss, the 15th and 16th centuries were known as the Two centuries of Croatia in mourning (Plorantis Croatiae saecula duo carmine descripta) in the lyric-epic poem of Pavao Ritter Vitezović
from 1703.
The Croatian combat against the Ottomans did not remain unnoticed in the political circles of European states. Copious amounts of information from the war was written in Monumenta Hungariae Historica, Codex diplomaticus partium Regno Hungariae adnexarum from 1903 (over 600 documents).
The Ottoman tactic consisted of persistent loot
and scorching
raids whose aim was to intimidate and demoralize the local civil inhabitants, to exhaust the economic opportunities and disable the normal economic life on the frontier areas. On the other side, Croatian and allied Christian forces implemented counterattacks, especially in the first phases of war, when they were still able to apply the counterattacking or the offensive tactics. Despite these destructive tactics, the armies did sometimes clash. Sometimes the local armies intercepted or pursued the raiders in their return from the raid. There was also more intense military actions, such as the Battle of Krbava or the battles for Sisak
.
The first zone was the territory of Kingdom of Croatia, that had no effective control by both sides, as well as the parts of Kingdom of Croatia that were heavily struck by the Ottoman military and paramilitary operations. This zone was up to 50 km deep in the Croatian territory. It mostly covered the areas along the border and the later-formed Military Frontier
. The infrastructure
and the supra-structure became ruined and devastated, and the economic life suffered. This zone had high rate of emigration
, mostly to the second and the third zones, along with emigrations abroad.
The second zone was from time to time exposed to the raids of the Ottoman regular and irregular forces. The area was controlled by the Croatian authorities and the economic life was still somewhat functioning. Population level was steady and received a continuous inflow of displacees from the first zone. The Croatian nobles used this zone as the support point and the base for the defense or for the attempts of retaking of their estates in the first zone. These areas lived as economic support of the armies.
The third zone was mostly Ottoman raid-safe zone, in which the majority of the zone had no Ottoman raids, although few areas were subjected to Ottoman raids
.
Kingdom of Croatia
Kingdom of Croatia can refer to:* Kingdom of Croatia * Kingdom of Croatia * Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia...
, which in that period was ruled by a succession of dynasties (Jagiellon
Jagiellon dynasty
The Jagiellonian dynasty was a royal dynasty originating from the Lithuanian House of Gediminas dynasty that reigned in Central European countries between the 14th and 16th century...
, Zapolya
John Zápolya
John Zápolya was King of Hungary from 1526 to 1540. His rule was disputed by Archduke Ferdinand I, who also claimed the title King of Hungary between 1526 and 1540. He was the voivode of Transylvania before his coronation.- Biography :...
and the Habsburg
Habsburg
The House of Habsburg , also found as Hapsburg, and also known as House of Austria is one of the most important royal houses of Europe and is best known for being an origin of all of the formally elected Holy Roman Emperors between 1438 and 1740, as well as rulers of the Austrian Empire and...
) and Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
s.
Time span
There are several different variations about the exact length of the war. According to one group of historians, the war began with the catastrophic loss at the Battle of Krbava fieldBattle of Krbava field
The Battle of Krbava field , was fought between the Ottoman Empire of Bayezid II and a Croatian army of the Kingdom of Croatia in personal union with the Kingdom of Hungary on September 9, 1493 in the Krbava field, a part of Lika region, southern Croatia...
in 1493, and ended with the Battle of Sisak
Battle of Sisak
The Battle of Sisak was fought on June 22, 1593, between Ottoman forces of the Bosnian governor-general, or Beylerbeyi, Hasan-paša Predojević, and forces of the Holy Roman Empire under the supreme command of the Styrian general Ruprecht von Eggenberg...
in 1593.
According to the other group of historians, the war lasted from the second half of the 15th century and into the entire 16th century.
A third group of historians mark the Peace of Zsitvatorok in 1606 as the end of the war. Considering the circumstances in that all the neighbouring Balkan countries have been conquered by Ottomans, and in spite of its heavy territorial losses, the Kingdom of Croatia and the Christian allies are seen as the victors in the war, given that Croatia managed to survive and remain within the Christian territories of Europe. The war was won by the Ottoman's defeat upon their advance on the Kupa border, with the remainder of Croatia's territory consisted of only 16.800 km².
In light of the human and territorial loss, the 15th and 16th centuries were known as the Two centuries of Croatia in mourning (Plorantis Croatiae saecula duo carmine descripta) in the lyric-epic poem of Pavao Ritter Vitezović
Pavao Ritter Vitezovic
Pavao Ritter Vitezović was a noted Croatian writer, historian, linguist and publisher.-Early life:Pavao Ritter Vitezović was born in Senj to a family of a frontier soldier. His father was descended from a German immigrant from Alsace, and his mother was Croatian...
from 1703.
Battlefield
The battlefields were concentrated in the eastern areas of the Kingdom of Croatia, stretching from the eastern border from the pre-Turkish times to the eastern border of the "reliquiae reliquiarum olim inclyti regni Croatiae" ("remnants of the once great and glorious kingdom of Croatia").International impact
Although the Croatian Kingdom suffered major defeats in battles, they did not lose the overall war for their survival and existence, nor the essential properties of its independence.The Croatian combat against the Ottomans did not remain unnoticed in the political circles of European states. Copious amounts of information from the war was written in Monumenta Hungariae Historica, Codex diplomaticus partium Regno Hungariae adnexarum from 1903 (over 600 documents).
Type of conflicts
During those 100 years (or 150 years, depending on criteria), the war on the territory of Kingdom of Croatia was overall a series of smaller armed conflicts ("small war") over the long duration of the war (in other words, armies were not always in constant battle.)The Ottoman tactic consisted of persistent loot
Looting
Looting —also referred to as sacking, plundering, despoiling, despoliation, and pillaging—is the indiscriminate taking of goods by force as part of a military or political victory, or during a catastrophe, such as during war, natural disaster, or rioting...
and scorching
Scorched earth
A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method which involves destroying anything that might be useful to the enemy while advancing through or withdrawing from an area...
raids whose aim was to intimidate and demoralize the local civil inhabitants, to exhaust the economic opportunities and disable the normal economic life on the frontier areas. On the other side, Croatian and allied Christian forces implemented counterattacks, especially in the first phases of war, when they were still able to apply the counterattacking or the offensive tactics. Despite these destructive tactics, the armies did sometimes clash. Sometimes the local armies intercepted or pursued the raiders in their return from the raid. There was also more intense military actions, such as the Battle of Krbava or the battles for Sisak
Sisak
Sisak is a city in central Croatia. The city's population in 2011 was 33,049, with a total of 49,699 in the administrative region and it is also the administrative centre of the Sisak-Moslavina county...
.
Zones of war peril
The war-endangered areas can be classified in three zones:The first zone was the territory of Kingdom of Croatia, that had no effective control by both sides, as well as the parts of Kingdom of Croatia that were heavily struck by the Ottoman military and paramilitary operations. This zone was up to 50 km deep in the Croatian territory. It mostly covered the areas along the border and the later-formed Military Frontier
Military Frontier
The Military Frontier was a borderland of Habsburg Austria and later the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which acted as the cordon sanitaire against incursions from the Ottoman Empire...
. The infrastructure
Infrastructure
Infrastructure is basic physical and organizational structures needed for the operation of a society or enterprise, or the services and facilities necessary for an economy to function...
and the supra-structure became ruined and devastated, and the economic life suffered. This zone had high rate of emigration
Emigration
Emigration is the act of leaving one's country or region to settle in another. It is the same as immigration but from the perspective of the country of origin. Human movement before the establishment of political boundaries or within one state is termed migration. There are many reasons why people...
, mostly to the second and the third zones, along with emigrations abroad.
The second zone was from time to time exposed to the raids of the Ottoman regular and irregular forces. The area was controlled by the Croatian authorities and the economic life was still somewhat functioning. Population level was steady and received a continuous inflow of displacees from the first zone. The Croatian nobles used this zone as the support point and the base for the defense or for the attempts of retaking of their estates in the first zone. These areas lived as economic support of the armies.
The third zone was mostly Ottoman raid-safe zone, in which the majority of the zone had no Ottoman raids, although few areas were subjected to Ottoman raids
Raid (military)
Raid, also known as depredation, is a military tactic or operational warfare mission which has a specific purpose and is not normally intended to capture and hold terrain, but instead finish with the raiding force quickly retreating to a previous defended position prior to the enemy forces being...
.
Sources
- Milan Kruhek: Granice Hrvatskog Kraljevstva u međunarodnim državnim ugovorima, Povijesni prilozi 10/1991, p. 37-79, ISSN 0351-9767
- Ferdo Šišić: Pregled povijesti hrvatskog naroda 600.-1526.