Homologous series
Encyclopedia
In chemistry
, a homologous series is a series of compounds with a similar general formula, possessing similar chemical properties due to the presence of the same functional group
, and showing a gradation in physical properties as a result of increase in molecular size and mass (see relative molecular mass). For example, ethane has a higher boiling point than methane since it has more Van der Waals forces (intermolecular forces) with neighbouring molecules. This is due to the increase in the number of atoms making up the molecule. Each organic compound in a homologous series vary by an extra CH2 molecule from the previous compound.
Alkane
s (paraffin
s), alkene
s (olefins), ethers, and alkyne
s (acetylene
s) form such series in which members differ in mass by 14 atomic mass units. For example, the alkane homologous series begins with methane
(CH4), ethane
(C2H6), propane
(C3H8), butane
(C4H10), and pentane
(C5H12), each member differing from the previous one by a CH2 group (or 14 atomic mass
units). The CH2 group is called Methylene
Group.
Similarly, there is the alcohol
homologous series that starts with methanol
(CH4O), ethanol
(C2H6O), as primary alcohols, isopropanol (C3H8O) as a simple secondary alcohol, and a simple tertiary alcohol is tert-butanol
(C4H10O).
Even though the general formula remains constant in a homologous series, specific members of the series may have different structures or entirely different properties, though qualitatively, reactivity usually remains the same. Compounds in each series typically have a similar group of atoms called a functional group
. Most chemical properties of organic compounds are due to the presence of functional groups.
Where n represents the number of carbon atoms present.
A Homologation reaction
is any chemical process
which converts one member of a homologous series to the next member.
. Titanium
, vanadium
, and molybdenum
oxides all form homologous series (e.g. VnO2n-1 for 2 < n < 10), as do the silanes, SinH2n+2 (with n up to 8) that are analogous to the alkanes, CnH2n+2.
Chemistry
Chemistry is the science of matter, especially its chemical reactions, but also its composition, structure and properties. Chemistry is concerned with atoms and their interactions with other atoms, and particularly with the properties of chemical bonds....
, a homologous series is a series of compounds with a similar general formula, possessing similar chemical properties due to the presence of the same functional group
Functional group
In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of...
, and showing a gradation in physical properties as a result of increase in molecular size and mass (see relative molecular mass). For example, ethane has a higher boiling point than methane since it has more Van der Waals forces (intermolecular forces) with neighbouring molecules. This is due to the increase in the number of atoms making up the molecule. Each organic compound in a homologous series vary by an extra CH2 molecule from the previous compound.
Alkane
Alkane
Alkanes are chemical compounds that consist only of hydrogen and carbon atoms and are bonded exclusively by single bonds without any cycles...
s (paraffin
Paraffin
In chemistry, paraffin is a term that can be used synonymously with "alkane", indicating hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2. Paraffin wax refers to a mixture of alkanes that falls within the 20 ≤ n ≤ 40 range; they are found in the solid state at room temperature and begin to enter the...
s), alkene
Alkene
In organic chemistry, an alkene, olefin, or olefine is an unsaturated chemical compound containing at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond...
s (olefins), ethers, and alkyne
Alkyne
Alkynes are hydrocarbons that have a triple bond between two carbon atoms, with the formula CnH2n-2. Alkynes are traditionally known as acetylenes, although the name acetylene also refers specifically to C2H2, known formally as ethyne using IUPAC nomenclature...
s (acetylene
Acetylene
Acetylene is the chemical compound with the formula C2H2. It is a hydrocarbon and the simplest alkyne. This colorless gas is widely used as a fuel and a chemical building block. It is unstable in pure form and thus is usually handled as a solution.As an alkyne, acetylene is unsaturated because...
s) form such series in which members differ in mass by 14 atomic mass units. For example, the alkane homologous series begins with methane
Methane
Methane is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is the simplest alkane, the principal component of natural gas, and probably the most abundant organic compound on earth. The relative abundance of methane makes it an attractive fuel...
(CH4), ethane
Ethane
Ethane is a chemical compound with chemical formula C2H6. It is the only two-carbon alkane that is an aliphatic hydrocarbon. At standard temperature and pressure, ethane is a colorless, odorless gas....
(C2H6), propane
Propane
Propane is a three-carbon alkane with the molecular formula , normally a gas, but compressible to a transportable liquid. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum refining, it is commonly used as a fuel for engines, oxy-gas torches, barbecues, portable stoves, and residential central...
(C3H8), butane
Butane
Butane is a gas with the formula C4H10 that is an alkane with four carbon atoms. The term may refer to any of two structural isomers, or to a mixture of them: in the IUPAC nomenclature, however, butane refers only to the unbranched n-butane isomer; the other one being called "methylpropane" or...
(C4H10), and pentane
Pentane
Pentane is an organic compound with the formula C5H12 — that is, an alkane with five carbon atoms. The term may refer to any of three structural isomers, or to a mixture of them: in the IUPAC nomenclature, however, pentane means exclusively the n-pentane isomer; the other two being called...
(C5H12), each member differing from the previous one by a CH2 group (or 14 atomic mass
Atomic mass
The atomic mass is the mass of a specific isotope, most often expressed in unified atomic mass units. The atomic mass is the total mass of protons, neutrons and electrons in a single atom....
units). The CH2 group is called Methylene
Methylene
Methylene is a chemical species in which a carbon atom is bonded to two hydrogen atoms. Three different possibilities present themselves:* the -CH2- substituent group: e.g., dichloromethane ....
Group.
Similarly, there is the alcohol
Alcohol
In chemistry, an alcohol is an organic compound in which the hydroxy functional group is bound to a carbon atom. In particular, this carbon center should be saturated, having single bonds to three other atoms....
homologous series that starts with methanol
Methanol
Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, wood alcohol, wood naphtha or wood spirits, is a chemical with the formula CH3OH . It is the simplest alcohol, and is a light, volatile, colorless, flammable liquid with a distinctive odor very similar to, but slightly sweeter than, ethanol...
(CH4O), ethanol
Ethanol
Ethanol, also called ethyl alcohol, pure alcohol, grain alcohol, or drinking alcohol, is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid. It is a psychoactive drug and one of the oldest recreational drugs. Best known as the type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages, it is also used in thermometers, as a...
(C2H6O), as primary alcohols, isopropanol (C3H8O) as a simple secondary alcohol, and a simple tertiary alcohol is tert-butanol
Tert-Butanol
tert-Butanol, or 2-methyl-2-propanol, is the simplest tertiary alcohol. It is one of the four isomers of butanol. tert-Butanol is a clear liquid with a camphor-like odor. It is very soluble in water and miscible with ethanol and diethyl ether...
(C4H10O).
Even though the general formula remains constant in a homologous series, specific members of the series may have different structures or entirely different properties, though qualitatively, reactivity usually remains the same. Compounds in each series typically have a similar group of atoms called a functional group
Functional group
In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of...
. Most chemical properties of organic compounds are due to the presence of functional groups.
| Homologous series | General formula | Example | Functional group |
| Straight Chain Alkanes | CnH2n + 2 (n ≥ 1) | CH4, n = 1 | |
| Straight Chain Perfluoroalkanes | CnF2n + 2 (n ≥ 1) | CF4, n = 1 | |
| Alkyl | CnH2n + 1 (n ≥ 1) | CH3, n = 1 | |
| Alkenes and Cyclic Alkanes | CnH2n (n ≥ 2) | C2H4, n = 2 | C = C |
| Alkynes | CnH2n − 2 (n ≥ 2) | C2H2, n = 2 | C ≡ C |
| Alcohols | CnH(2n + 1)OH (n ≥ 1) | CH3OH, n = 1 | - OH |
| Carboxylic acid Carboxylic acid Carboxylic acids are organic acids characterized by the presence of at least one carboxyl group. The general formula of a carboxylic acid is R-COOH, where R is some monovalent functional group... s | CnH2n+1COOH (n ≥ 0) | CH2O2, n = 0 | - COOH |
| Carbohydrate Carbohydrate A carbohydrate is an organic compound with the empirical formula ; that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 . However, there are exceptions to this. One common example would be deoxyribose, a component of DNA, which has the empirical... s | Cx(H2O)y (n ≥ 1) | C6H12O6 |
Where n represents the number of carbon atoms present.
A Homologation reaction
Homologation reaction
A homologation reaction, also known as homologization, is any chemical reaction that converts the reactant into the next member of the homologous series. A Homologous series is a group of compounds that differ by a constant unit, generally a group. The reactants undergo a homologation when the...
is any chemical process
Chemical process
In a "scientific" sense, a chemical process is a method or means of somehow changing one or more chemicals or chemical compounds. Such a chemical process can occur by itself or be caused by somebody. Such a chemical process commonly involves a chemical reaction of some sort...
which converts one member of a homologous series to the next member.
Inorganic Homologous Series
Homologous series are not unique to organic chemistryOrganic chemistry
Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline within chemistry involving the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of carbon-based compounds, hydrocarbons, and their derivatives...
. Titanium
Titanium
Titanium is a chemical element with the symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It has a low density and is a strong, lustrous, corrosion-resistant transition metal with a silver color....
, vanadium
Vanadium
Vanadium is a chemical element with the symbol V and atomic number 23. It is a hard, silvery gray, ductile and malleable transition metal. The formation of an oxide layer stabilizes the metal against oxidation. The element is found only in chemically combined form in nature...
, and molybdenum
Molybdenum
Molybdenum , is a Group 6 chemical element with the symbol Mo and atomic number 42. The name is from Neo-Latin Molybdaenum, from Ancient Greek , meaning lead, itself proposed as a loanword from Anatolian Luvian and Lydian languages, since its ores were confused with lead ores...
oxides all form homologous series (e.g. VnO2n-1 for 2 < n < 10), as do the silanes, SinH2n+2 (with n up to 8) that are analogous to the alkanes, CnH2n+2.