History of the Székely people
Encyclopedia
The history of the Székely people, a Transylvania
n subgroup of the Hungarians, spans nine centuries, although many historians consider that the formation of the Székely people had taken place before the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin in 895-896.
, the notary of Hungarian King Béla IV
wrote about the conquest of Hungary
about 300 years earlier. He said that the Hungarians and Székelys had common roots. The invading Hungarians, led by Árpád
, according to legend a descendant of Attila the Hun
, met the Székelys, who also used to be the people of Attila, in southern Hungary. The Székelys then joined the Hungarians in fighting together against the enemies of Árpád. The chronicle was written centuries after the described events.
Until the end of 19th century, Székelys were considered to be of Hunnish origin and thought to have been living in the Carpathian Basin since the 5th century. During the Millennium Celebrations in Hungary in 1896, commemorating the arrival of Magyars into present-day Hungary 1000 years before, some Székelys said that their own migration and arrival should have been celebrated a couple of centuries earlier.
Due to the lack of reliable sources from early medieval times, none of these can be completely proved or rejected. Even the version in Gesta Hungarorum cannot be completely ruled out, although scholars do not know what source material the author used for his account.
In the 10-11th centuries, most Székelys lived in the Bihar
area and in border regions of Hungary. Later, possibly by the order of the Hungarian kings, they gradually settled in the area today known as Székely Land
, along the eastern border. Information about their original settlement areas can be deduced from place names and from some original documents. Certain Transylvanian territories given to the Teutonic Knights
and Saxons
in the 12th century, were earlier inhabited by Székely tribes. Székelys lived in present-day Transylvanian regions like Saschiz
, Gârbova
, Sebeş
, or Mediaş
.
The reason behind the relocation from southern Transylvania could have been that the Byzantine Empire
became stronger in this period. The Teutonic Knights were considered to be better in resisting the Empire. At the same time, Székely light cavalry was better in fighting against nomadic peoples, like the Kumans, or Tatars
to the East. The last group of Székelys were relocated from the Saschiz
area and were awarded the Aranyosszék region by Stephen V of Hungary
around 1270. (Saschiz was called "Kézd" in contemporary Hungarian. Another group of Kézd Székelys had moved to southern Székely Land
earlier and settled in the area known as "Kézdi Seat".)
, were organised in Seats
. Seats in medieval Hungary were autonomous territorial units. After the final settlement in Székely Land in the 12-13th centuries, seven Seats took shape, possibly following the tribal structure of the Székelys:
The latter three seats were united in the early 17th century, and have been called Háromszék (Three Seats) since then.
Székely Land was not part of the Hungarian county system. As a single territorial unit, it was led by the Count
of the Székelys , a representative of the king. The Count of the Székelys was chosen by the king, usually from Hungarian aristocrats, and never from the Székelys. John Hunyadi
was the first Voivode of Transylvania to assume this position. Since then, the Transylvanian voivods (later princes) had the rank of Count of the Székelys, along with their other titles. Issues concerning the Székely Land were discussed by the Assembly of Seats, where all free Székelys had the right to participate. The assembly usually took place in Udvarhely Seat
. Udvarhely Seat was also called the Principal Seat ; however, the other Seats always jealously maintained that all seats were equal.
In the Diets
of Hungary and of Transylvania, the Székelys were represented as one of the nations, or estates
. (Estates in those times were called nations.) Székelys joined the Union of Three Nations, an alliance of Transylvanian estates formed in 1438.
With their autonomous territorial, judiciary, administrative and military structures, the medieval Székely society followed the pre-feudal democratic tribal patterns. Judges and all of their leaders were elected directly (except for their Count, who was appointed by the King of Hungary). Common land was redistributed on a regular basis. If a Székely died without inheritors, his land became part of the common lands and any free Székely was entitled to take it over (In the feudal county system, the king or the landlord would have been the heir in this case). No family could take out more land from the common lands than the amount they could cultivate. If a plot remained uncultivated for a longer period, it was also subject to occupation by other Székelys. The heritage rules restricted poverty and prevented the settlement of non-Székely people in Székely Land for centuries.
attacked and partly destroyed the Tatar army returning to Moldova
packed with loot. But Székelys were not only defending Transylvania, they took part in campaigns abroad, too.
In 1499, when armed clashes with the Ottoman Empire and its vassal states became regular, a diploma issued by King Vladislaus II
(II. Ulászló) reaffirmed the conditions under which the Székelys provided military services:
In a similar way, half of the Székelys supported the king during his campaigns against Wallachia
and 1/5 of them if the army was only led by a deputy. Common Székelys did not participate personally in wars with Western and Northern countries; however, they were obliged to hire mercenaries and send them in battle under the leadership of Székely captains. As a result of their military services, Székelys had equal rights to the Hungarian nobles. They were exempted from paying taxes and, when visiting the feudal noble counties, even the poorest of them were treated as free people. As the diploma of King Vladislaus II explains: "Therefore the Székelys, as nobles by rights granted by glorious Hungarian Kings of the past, are exempt from any tax or other duties, and are free." Following an old tradition, every landed household gave an ox as a present to the king when he was crowned, when he got married, and when a child was born in the royal family.
Soon, primores attempted to follow the example of neighbouring feudal noble counties and tried to obtain serfs for their lands. The poorest common people were sometimes unable to purchase weapons and could not participate in military campaigns without financial support. This group, along with non-Székely immigrants, soon became subject to the efforts of primores looking for servants.
Kings, especially Matthias Corvinus, took measures to stop this process. They were afraid that the number of people available for the infantry would decrease. They could not prevent commoners unable to participate in the military from becoming serfs. This group lost their rights and were not part of the Székely Nation any more. In 1499, King Vladislaus II
(II. Ulászló) exempted from military service those poor Székelys who lived on other people's land as servants, or whose movable property was worth less than 3 Forints. They lost their noble rights by the same regulation.
After the 15th century, the Székely assembly became monopolised by the first two classes. In 1511 and in 1519, common Székelys revolted against the oppression by their own Primores. Székely freedom was also decreased when royal judges were appointed in the Seats. They gradually took over the duties of elected Székely judges, but the members of the jury
were still elected locally. In spite of these unfavourable processes, most commoners retained their freedom and rights.
occupation of Central Hungary in 1526, the Eastern parts, including Transylvania, were ruled by the Zápolya Family
, pretender
s of the Hungarian Throne. In the second half of the century, the independent Principality of Transylvania came into existence. During this period, Székelys almost lost their freedom.
Due to frequent armed clashes, Székelys were often called to fight by John Zápolya
, and later by his son, John Sigismund
. At the same time, financial burdens of the wars led the rulers to end the traditional system of exempting Székely Land from taxes, as it constituted a significant area of their country. The acts passed in 1554 excluded primores and horsemen from paying taxes, but required them of infantrymen. Consequently, common people were burdened both by taxes and compulsory military service. This unfavourable situation led to an armed revolt in 1562, which was defeated by John Sigismund. After the revolt, he abandoned traditional Székely offices such as the elected judges, or the positions of elected Seat Captains. Instead he appointed a governing captain, with an office in Udvarhely
, the principal seat. The government built two fortresses to control the Székelys, one in Udvarhely, and another in Háromszék
. Insensitive to traditional rights, John Sigismund granted whole Székely villages as feudal estates to his supporters.
Later, princes of Transylvania followed this attitude, but also made use of the Székely military traditions. Stefan Batory
, Voivod of Transylvania and King of Poland deployed Transylvanian, mostly Székely mercenaries in the Livonian War
against Ivan IV of Russia
.
Sigismund Báthory
, Prince of Transylvania, who needed their support in the Wallachian Campaign
in 1595, promised that their old rights would be restored. As a result, 23,000 Székelys joined the Transylvanian army led by Stephen Bocskay
. They provided essential support to Michael the Brave in fighting the Ottoman
army. The next year, Sigismund Báthory withdrew his promises and brutally suppressed the revolting Székelys. In 1599, when Michael the Brave attacked Transylvania, Székelys joined Michael during the Battle of Şelimbăr
. With their support, Michael the Brave scored a victory over the troops of Andrew Báthory
. The escaping prince was later captured and killed in Székely Land. As a reward for their support, Michael restored their old freedom. Székelys also destroyed the royal fortresses built on their land by John Sigismund. Princes of Transylvania learnt from these events and the returning Sigismund Báthory
, then Stephen Bocskay
, later Gabriel Bethlen
reinforced their freedom, also restored traditional offices like elected Seat Captains and elected judges. Even serfs were exempted from paying taxes in Székely Land.
Mózes Székely
(1553–1603) is the only Székely monarch of the Transylvanian Principality. His personality, walk of life, historical faith, fights for the Hungarians let us to rate him among the representatives like the last freely elected Hungarian national king John II., known as Zsigmond János, or the monarchs after him like István Báthory, István Bocskai, Gábor Bethlen and Ferenc Rákóczi II. All these great Hungarian characters sacrificed their living for the maintain of the institution of Hungarian nation.
During the 17th century, Székelys continued to be one of the most important components of the Transylvanian army. They could be mobilised quickly, and were under arms in a couple of weeks, at the disposal of the Prince. While the rights of the three classes in arms remained untouched, the social processes of the earlier centuries continued. The number of serfs within their society continuously increased. To maintain the number of infantrymen in the army and prevent them from choosing a more peaceful life as serfs, Transylvanian princes later re-introduced the taxation of Székely serfs.
issued his Diploma Leopoldinum, the new constitution of Transylvania in 1691. The Diploma did not radically change the Székely privileges. In spite of this, taxation was soon introduced and villages had to accommodate troops of the Emperor. The Székelys paid the taxes and provided services, as they declared, on a "temporary basis" and "on their own will".
During the Rákóczi Uprising
between 1703 and 1711, Székelys supported Francis II Rákóczi, the last elected Prince of Transylvania. When the Habsburgs took control of Transylvania after the uprising, Székelys were disarmed and their military services were no longer wanted. The offices of Seat Captains were wound up but the traditional democratic Székely institutions, like their judiciary system, remained unharmed for decades to come.
decided to set up border guard troops on the borders of Transylvania, based on the Military Frontier
system already in place on the Ottoman border area. Mostly Romanians
were recruited in the southern Carpathians
(Fogaras
area) and Székelys in the Eastern Carpathians
. The drafting was organised partly on voluntary, partly on compulsory basis, and resulted in conflicts in many places, especially in Székely Land. The Székelys requested that instead of the imperial officers, they have their own leaders according to the traditions, and that they are not ordered to go in action abroad. As the negotiations failed with the army, Székelys openly protested and some of the Seats contacted each other to start co-ordinated actions. As the drafting was only partly successful, the chief officer responsible for the recruitment gave up his plans and ordered that the so far distributed weapons are returned by the Székelys. They, however, gave back only part of the equipment and kept the rifles as a compensation for the weapons confiscated after the Rákóczi Uprising.
The next, already violent attempt by the imperial officers to recruit Székely border guards culminated in a tragic event, the Mádéfalva Massacre
, commemorated until today. In December 1763, the men sought refuge from drafting in the mountains, at Mádéfalva , some of them equipped with weapons. On 7 January 1764, an army unit of 1300 soldiers, with two cannons, attacked the peaceful crowd and massacred hundreds of them. The drafting in Székely Land was quickly and easily completed after these events. Border guard troops were set up in every Seat except for Udvarhely and Maros Seat.
After the Mádéfalva Massacre, many Székelys crossed the Carpathians
and escaped to Moldova
. Those who stayed in the Moldavian Voivodate, became one of the subgroups of Csángó
people. Others moved to the Bukovina
Region and founded their final settlements with the help of General András Hadik. This group retained their traditions and are regarded to as the Székelys of Bukovina
.
The Military Frontier Organisation put an end to the autonomy of the Székely Nation in some respects. The self governance of the settlements was seriously hurt by the border guard commanders. They interfered with the election of judges, the local agriculture and schooling, also with the every-day life of the Székely guards. Property transactions or weddings could be done only with the permission of the officers. In local communities, however, many of the traditions were kept, the Székely pride and their strong desire for freedom remained. They organised their own life, set rules for the building of roads and bridges, also for the election of their leaders and jury members. (Most of these issues were decided by landlords in the noble counties.) The ancient system of redistributing common lands was still a practice by the end of the 18th century, but ceased to exist in a couple of decades. By the 1820s, only a couple settlements practiced the yearly land redistribution. The last examples include the capital of Aranyos Seat
, Felvinc (today: Unirea
).
of 1848-49, Székelys supported the liberal parties pressing for full freedom of serfs and equal taxation for everybody.
The Assembly of Udvarhely
Seat (later followed by other Seats, too) decided already on 3 April 1848 that they would give up their remaining tax reliefs. Serfs in Háromszék
were ordered by Székely border guards not to provide the traditional feudal services to their landlords. The decisions of the Seats were reinforced by the last Transylvanian Diet in June 1848.
Székelys also supported the decision of the Transylvanian Diet about the unification of Transylvania with Hungary. When the Habsburg Army, under the leadership of General Puchner, tried to take control of Transylvania, Székelys were the only serious resistance to his efforts. However, not equipped with artillery, they were quickly defeated. Maros Seat was occupied, Udvarhely Seat surrendered, Csík Seat declared neutrality. In this situation, the resistance was re-organised in Háromszék
. On the assembly of the Háromszék in November, Áron Gábor
, a former artillery officer, convinced the delegates that instead of surrendering, they should try to manufacture cannons locally. In a couple of weeks, the first cannons were ready and were successfully deployed. During the following period, dozens of cannons were manufactured and used by the Székely Army. Half of the Transylvanian troops of General Puchner were engaged in fights with the resisting Háromszék. This prevented him from attacking the Várad Fortress (today: Oradea
) in a decisive moment and from opening a second front in the Hungarian military theatre.
By the end of 1848 - beginning of 1849, Székelys joined the army set up by General Józef Bem
and took part in his successful campaigns driving out Habsburg troops from Transylvania. The successful campaign was finally crushed when the imperial Russian army intervened in Transylvania following a request from the Habsburg Empire.
) was made between Austria and Hungary about the creation of the Dual Monarchy
. According to the Compromise, Transylvania was united with the Kingdom of Hungary. A decade later, a new county system
was introduced in the Kingdom, which put an end to the long tradition of Székely Seats.
Further information: Treaty of Trianon
, Hungarian minority in Romania, Magyar Autonomous Region
Transylvania
Transylvania is a historical region in the central part of Romania. Bounded on the east and south by the Carpathian mountain range, historical Transylvania extended in the west to the Apuseni Mountains; however, the term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the historical...
n subgroup of the Hungarians, spans nine centuries, although many historians consider that the formation of the Székely people had taken place before the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin in 895-896.
Myths
At the end of the 12th century, in a chronicle called Gesta HungarorumGesta Hungarorum
Gesta Hungarorum is a record of early Hungarian history by an unknown author who describes himself as Anonymi Bele Regis Notarii , but is generally cited as Anonymus...
, the notary of Hungarian King Béla IV
Béla IV of Hungary
Béla IV , King of Hungary and of Croatia , duke of Styria 1254–58. One of the most famous kings of Hungary, he distinguished himself through his policy of strengthening of the royal power following the example of his grandfather Bela III, and by the rebuilding Hungary after the catastrophe of the...
wrote about the conquest of Hungary
Kingdom of Hungary
The Kingdom of Hungary comprised present-day Hungary, Slovakia and Croatia , Transylvania , Carpatho Ruthenia , Vojvodina , Burgenland , and other smaller territories surrounding present-day Hungary's borders...
about 300 years earlier. He said that the Hungarians and Székelys had common roots. The invading Hungarians, led by Árpád
Árpád
Árpád was the second Grand Prince of the Hungarians . Under his rule the Hungarian people settled in the Carpathian basin. The dynasty descending from him ruled the Hungarian tribes and later the Kingdom of Hungary until 1301...
, according to legend a descendant of Attila the Hun
Attila the Hun
Attila , more frequently referred to as Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in 453. He was leader of the Hunnic Empire, which stretched from the Ural River to the Rhine River and from the Danube River to the Baltic Sea. During his reign he was one of the most feared...
, met the Székelys, who also used to be the people of Attila, in southern Hungary. The Székelys then joined the Hungarians in fighting together against the enemies of Árpád. The chronicle was written centuries after the described events.
Until the end of 19th century, Székelys were considered to be of Hunnish origin and thought to have been living in the Carpathian Basin since the 5th century. During the Millennium Celebrations in Hungary in 1896, commemorating the arrival of Magyars into present-day Hungary 1000 years before, some Székelys said that their own migration and arrival should have been celebrated a couple of centuries earlier.
Speculations and theories today
Controversy continues over the origins of Székelys. Some of the possible explanations are:- Székelys were one of the KabarKabarThe Khavars or erroneously Kabars were Khazarians, therefore Turkic people who joined to the Magyars in the 8th century.- History :...
or other tribes joining the Magyars before their arrival in the Carpathian Basin; - Székelys were Magyars ordered to defend the borders after the conquest of the country;
- Székelys were a group of Magyars who arrived centuries earlier, already in the time of the Avar Khaganate; and
- Székelys were descendants of the AvarEurasian AvarsThe Eurasian Avars or Ancient Avars were a highly organized nomadic confederacy of mixed origins. They were ruled by a khagan, who was surrounded by a tight-knit entourage of nomad warriors, an organization characteristic of Turko-Mongol groups...
people, whose Khaganate was liquidated by CharlemagneCharlemagneCharlemagne was King of the Franks from 768 and Emperor of the Romans from 800 to his death in 814. He expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of Western and Central Europe. During his reign, he conquered Italy and was crowned by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800...
and Khan Krum in the early 9th century, who relocated to TransylvaniaTransylvaniaTransylvania is a historical region in the central part of Romania. Bounded on the east and south by the Carpathian mountain range, historical Transylvania extended in the west to the Apuseni Mountains; however, the term sometimes encompasses not only Transylvania proper, but also the historical...
in the 12th century. - Székelys were descendants of the old BulgariansEsegelEsegels were a, possibly,Turkic dynastic tribe that in the Middle Ages joined the Itil Bulgaria state and were assimilated to Bulgars; or was possibly a Bulgar tribe all along, as mentioned by Ibn Fadlan...
in Transylvania, who had their Bulgarian consciousness until 14th century
Due to the lack of reliable sources from early medieval times, none of these can be completely proved or rejected. Even the version in Gesta Hungarorum cannot be completely ruled out, although scholars do not know what source material the author used for his account.
Settlement in Székely Land
Bihar (county)
Bihar is the name of a historic administrative county of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory is presently mostly in northwestern Romania, where it is administered as Bihor County, and a smaller part in eastern Hungary...
area and in border regions of Hungary. Later, possibly by the order of the Hungarian kings, they gradually settled in the area today known as Székely Land
Székely Land
The Székely Land or Szekler Land refers to the territories inhabited mainly by the Székely, a Hungarian-speaking ethnic group from eastern Transylvania...
, along the eastern border. Information about their original settlement areas can be deduced from place names and from some original documents. Certain Transylvanian territories given to the Teutonic Knights
Teutonic Knights
The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem , commonly the Teutonic Order , is a German medieval military order, in modern times a purely religious Catholic order...
and Saxons
Transylvanian Saxons
The Transylvanian Saxons are a people of German ethnicity who settled in Transylvania from the 12th century onwards.The colonization of Transylvania by Germans was begun by King Géza II of Hungary . For decades, the main task of the German settlers was to defend the southeastern border of the...
in the 12th century, were earlier inhabited by Székely tribes. Székelys lived in present-day Transylvanian regions like Saschiz
Saschiz
Saschiz is a commune in Mureş County, Romania. It has a population of 2,048: 88% Romanians, 5% Germans, 4% Hungarians and 3% Roma. It is composed of three villages: Cloaşterf, Mihai Viteazu and Saschiz....
, Gârbova
Gârbova
Gârbova is a commune located in Alba County, Romania. It has a population of 2,059 and is composed of three villages: Cărpiniş, Gârbova and Reciu.-References:...
, Sebeş
Sebes
Sebeș is a city in Alba County, central Romania, southern Transylvania.-Geography:The city lies on the Mureș River valley and it straddles the Sebeș river...
, or Mediaş
Medias
Mediaș is the second largest city in Sibiu County, Transylvania, Romania.-Geographic location:Mediaș is located in the middle basin of Târnava Mare River, at 39 km from Sighișoara and 41 km from Blaj. The health resort Bazna, officially recognized for the first time in 1302, is...
.
The reason behind the relocation from southern Transylvania could have been that the Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was the Eastern Roman Empire during the periods of Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, centred on the capital of Constantinople. Known simply as the Roman Empire or Romania to its inhabitants and neighbours, the Empire was the direct continuation of the Ancient Roman State...
became stronger in this period. The Teutonic Knights were considered to be better in resisting the Empire. At the same time, Székely light cavalry was better in fighting against nomadic peoples, like the Kumans, or Tatars
Tatars
Tatars are a Turkic speaking ethnic group , numbering roughly 7 million.The majority of Tatars live in the Russian Federation, with a population of around 5.5 million, about 2 million of which in the republic of Tatarstan.Significant minority populations are found in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan,...
to the East. The last group of Székelys were relocated from the Saschiz
Saschiz
Saschiz is a commune in Mureş County, Romania. It has a population of 2,048: 88% Romanians, 5% Germans, 4% Hungarians and 3% Roma. It is composed of three villages: Cloaşterf, Mihai Viteazu and Saschiz....
area and were awarded the Aranyosszék region by Stephen V of Hungary
Stephen V of Hungary
Stephen V , was King of Hungary from 1270 to 1272.-Early years:...
around 1270. (Saschiz was called "Kézd" in contemporary Hungarian. Another group of Kézd Székelys had moved to southern Székely Land
Székely Land
The Székely Land or Szekler Land refers to the territories inhabited mainly by the Székely, a Hungarian-speaking ethnic group from eastern Transylvania...
earlier and settled in the area known as "Kézdi Seat".)
Territorial and administrative organisation
Székelys, similarly to Transylvanian SaxonsTransylvanian Saxons
The Transylvanian Saxons are a people of German ethnicity who settled in Transylvania from the 12th century onwards.The colonization of Transylvania by Germans was begun by King Géza II of Hungary . For decades, the main task of the German settlers was to defend the southeastern border of the...
, were organised in Seats
Seat (territorial-administrative unit)
Seats were territorial-administrative units in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary. The seats were autonomous regions within the Kingdom, and were independent from the feudal county system...
. Seats in medieval Hungary were autonomous territorial units. After the final settlement in Székely Land in the 12-13th centuries, seven Seats took shape, possibly following the tribal structure of the Székelys:
- Udvarhely Seat
- Csík Seat
- Aranyos SeatAranyos SeatAranyos seat was the seat of the Transylvanian Székelys living in the Valley of the Arieş River ....
- Maros Seat
- Orbai Seat
- Sepsi Seat
- Kézdi Seat
The latter three seats were united in the early 17th century, and have been called Háromszék (Three Seats) since then.
Székely Land was not part of the Hungarian county system. As a single territorial unit, it was led by the Count
Count
A count or countess is an aristocratic nobleman in European countries. The word count came into English from the French comte, itself from Latin comes—in its accusative comitem—meaning "companion", and later "companion of the emperor, delegate of the emperor". The adjective form of the word is...
of the Székelys , a representative of the king. The Count of the Székelys was chosen by the king, usually from Hungarian aristocrats, and never from the Székelys. John Hunyadi
John Hunyadi
John Hunyadi John Hunyadi (Hungarian: Hunyadi János , Medieval Latin: Ioannes Corvinus or Ioannes de Hunyad, Romanian: Iancu (Ioan) de Hunedoara, Croatian: Janko Hunjadi, Serbian: Сибињанин Јанко / Sibinjanin Janko, Slovak: Ján Huňady) John Hunyadi (Hungarian: Hunyadi János , Medieval Latin: ...
was the first Voivode of Transylvania to assume this position. Since then, the Transylvanian voivods (later princes) had the rank of Count of the Székelys, along with their other titles. Issues concerning the Székely Land were discussed by the Assembly of Seats, where all free Székelys had the right to participate. The assembly usually took place in Udvarhely Seat
Udvarhely
Udvarhely was the name of an administrative county of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory is presently in central Romania . The capital of the county was Székelyudvarhely .-Geography:...
. Udvarhely Seat was also called the Principal Seat ; however, the other Seats always jealously maintained that all seats were equal.
In the Diets
Diet (assembly)
In politics, a diet is a formal deliberative assembly. The term is mainly used historically for the Imperial Diet, the general assembly of the Imperial Estates of the Holy Roman Empire, and for the legislative bodies of certain countries.-Etymology:...
of Hungary and of Transylvania, the Székelys were represented as one of the nations, or estates
Estates of the realm
The Estates of the realm were the broad social orders of the hierarchically conceived society, recognized in the Middle Ages and Early Modern period in Christian Europe; they are sometimes distinguished as the three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and commoners, and are often referred to by...
. (Estates in those times were called nations.) Székelys joined the Union of Three Nations, an alliance of Transylvanian estates formed in 1438.
With their autonomous territorial, judiciary, administrative and military structures, the medieval Székely society followed the pre-feudal democratic tribal patterns. Judges and all of their leaders were elected directly (except for their Count, who was appointed by the King of Hungary). Common land was redistributed on a regular basis. If a Székely died without inheritors, his land became part of the common lands and any free Székely was entitled to take it over (In the feudal county system, the king or the landlord would have been the heir in this case). No family could take out more land from the common lands than the amount they could cultivate. If a plot remained uncultivated for a longer period, it was also subject to occupation by other Székelys. The heritage rules restricted poverty and prevented the settlement of non-Székely people in Székely Land for centuries.
Services provided to the King of Hungary
The Székely light cavalry fit perfectly into the medieval Hungarian military forces, supplementing the army of armoured knights. They were especially effective against nomadic invaders from the East, using similar fighting methods and strategies. One of their first recorded military victories is from 1285, when Székelys of the Aranyos SeatAranyos Seat
Aranyos seat was the seat of the Transylvanian Székelys living in the Valley of the Arieş River ....
attacked and partly destroyed the Tatar army returning to Moldova
Moldova
Moldova , officially the Republic of Moldova is a landlocked state in Eastern Europe, located between Romania to the West and Ukraine to the North, East and South. It declared itself an independent state with the same boundaries as the preceding Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1991, as part...
packed with loot. But Székelys were not only defending Transylvania, they took part in campaigns abroad, too.
In 1499, when armed clashes with the Ottoman Empire and its vassal states became regular, a diploma issued by King Vladislaus II
Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary
Vladislaus II, also known as Ladislaus Jagiellon ; was King of Bohemia from 1471 and King of Hungary from 1490 until his death in 1516...
(II. Ulászló) reaffirmed the conditions under which the Székelys provided military services:
"When the King personally leads his army towards the East, against Moldova, each one of the Székely cavalrymen and infantrymen are required to be under arms, go before the Royal Army and wait for the battle abroad for 15 days on their own expense. Also, on the way back, they shall go behind the Royal Army. When His Majesty sends his personal deputy to the East, half of the Székelys should accompany him as described."
In a similar way, half of the Székelys supported the king during his campaigns against Wallachia
Wallachia
Wallachia or Walachia is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians...
and 1/5 of them if the army was only led by a deputy. Common Székelys did not participate personally in wars with Western and Northern countries; however, they were obliged to hire mercenaries and send them in battle under the leadership of Székely captains. As a result of their military services, Székelys had equal rights to the Hungarian nobles. They were exempted from paying taxes and, when visiting the feudal noble counties, even the poorest of them were treated as free people. As the diploma of King Vladislaus II explains: "Therefore the Székelys, as nobles by rights granted by glorious Hungarian Kings of the past, are exempt from any tax or other duties, and are free." Following an old tradition, every landed household gave an ox as a present to the king when he was crowned, when he got married, and when a child was born in the royal family.
Changes in the Székely social structure
Although most of their privileges and pre-feudal customs remained untouched, there were some gradual changes in the Székely society over the centuries after their final settlement. Three classes evolved, based on the status they had in the army, which closely correlated to their wealth. Originally senior commanders () were the richest class of the society, the elite and later the aristocracy of the Szeklers. Horsemen (lófők in Hungarian, literally "Horse Heads") were the second, a wealthy and influential class. Those not able to finance a horse served in the infantry and were called the common Székelys. The best Székely commanders sometimes were awarded feudal estates by the king in the neighbourhood of Székely Land. Wealthy members of the society gained territories by deforestation outside of the common lands; these were not subject to redistribution by the community. They were also able to obtain and cultivate larger pieces from the common lands.Soon, primores attempted to follow the example of neighbouring feudal noble counties and tried to obtain serfs for their lands. The poorest common people were sometimes unable to purchase weapons and could not participate in military campaigns without financial support. This group, along with non-Székely immigrants, soon became subject to the efforts of primores looking for servants.
Kings, especially Matthias Corvinus, took measures to stop this process. They were afraid that the number of people available for the infantry would decrease. They could not prevent commoners unable to participate in the military from becoming serfs. This group lost their rights and were not part of the Székely Nation any more. In 1499, King Vladislaus II
Vladislaus II of Bohemia and Hungary
Vladislaus II, also known as Ladislaus Jagiellon ; was King of Bohemia from 1471 and King of Hungary from 1490 until his death in 1516...
(II. Ulászló) exempted from military service those poor Székelys who lived on other people's land as servants, or whose movable property was worth less than 3 Forints. They lost their noble rights by the same regulation.
After the 15th century, the Székely assembly became monopolised by the first two classes. In 1511 and in 1519, common Székelys revolted against the oppression by their own Primores. Székely freedom was also decreased when royal judges were appointed in the Seats. They gradually took over the duties of elected Székely judges, but the members of the jury
Jury
A jury is a sworn body of people convened to render an impartial verdict officially submitted to them by a court, or to set a penalty or judgment. Modern juries tend to be found in courts to ascertain the guilt, or lack thereof, in a crime. In Anglophone jurisdictions, the verdict may be guilty,...
were still elected locally. In spite of these unfavourable processes, most commoners retained their freedom and rights.
Székelys in the Principality of Transylvania (16-17th century)
After the OttomanOttoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
occupation of Central Hungary in 1526, the Eastern parts, including Transylvania, were ruled by the Zápolya Family
John Zápolya
John Zápolya was King of Hungary from 1526 to 1540. His rule was disputed by Archduke Ferdinand I, who also claimed the title King of Hungary between 1526 and 1540. He was the voivode of Transylvania before his coronation.- Biography :...
, pretender
Pretender
A pretender is one who claims entitlement to an unavailable position of honour or rank. Most often it refers to a former monarch, or descendant thereof, whose throne is occupied or claimed by a rival, or has been abolished....
s of the Hungarian Throne. In the second half of the century, the independent Principality of Transylvania came into existence. During this period, Székelys almost lost their freedom.
Due to frequent armed clashes, Székelys were often called to fight by John Zápolya
John Zápolya
John Zápolya was King of Hungary from 1526 to 1540. His rule was disputed by Archduke Ferdinand I, who also claimed the title King of Hungary between 1526 and 1540. He was the voivode of Transylvania before his coronation.- Biography :...
, and later by his son, John Sigismund
John II Sigismund Zápolya
John II Sigismund Zápolya was King of Hungary from 1540 to 1570 and Prince of Transylvania from 1570–1571.-Family:The son of King John I and Isabella Jagiełło, he succeeded his father as an infant...
. At the same time, financial burdens of the wars led the rulers to end the traditional system of exempting Székely Land from taxes, as it constituted a significant area of their country. The acts passed in 1554 excluded primores and horsemen from paying taxes, but required them of infantrymen. Consequently, common people were burdened both by taxes and compulsory military service. This unfavourable situation led to an armed revolt in 1562, which was defeated by John Sigismund. After the revolt, he abandoned traditional Székely offices such as the elected judges, or the positions of elected Seat Captains. Instead he appointed a governing captain, with an office in Udvarhely
Udvarhely
Udvarhely was the name of an administrative county of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory is presently in central Romania . The capital of the county was Székelyudvarhely .-Geography:...
, the principal seat. The government built two fortresses to control the Székelys, one in Udvarhely, and another in Háromszék
Háromszék
Háromszék is the name of a historic administrative county of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory is presently in central Romania...
. Insensitive to traditional rights, John Sigismund granted whole Székely villages as feudal estates to his supporters.
Later, princes of Transylvania followed this attitude, but also made use of the Székely military traditions. Stefan Batory
Stefan Batory
Stephen Báthory was a Hungarian noble Prince of Transylvania , then King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania . He was a member of the Somlyó branch of the noble Hungarian Báthory family...
, Voivod of Transylvania and King of Poland deployed Transylvanian, mostly Székely mercenaries in the Livonian War
Livonian War
The Livonian War was fought for control of Old Livonia in the territory of present-day Estonia and Latvia when the Tsardom of Russia faced a varying coalition of Denmark–Norway, the Kingdom of Sweden, the Union of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland.During the period 1558–1578,...
against Ivan IV of Russia
Ivan IV of Russia
Ivan IV Vasilyevich , known in English as Ivan the Terrible , was Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 until his death. His long reign saw the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia, transforming Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state spanning almost one billion acres,...
.
Sigismund Báthory
Sigismund Báthory was Prince of Transylvania.-Biography:Hailing from the Báthory family's Somlyó branch, he was the son of Christopher Báthory, Voivod of Transylvania, and nephew of Stephen Báthory, King of Poland...
, Prince of Transylvania, who needed their support in the Wallachian Campaign
Battle of Calugareni
The Battle of Călugăreni was one of the most important battles in the history of medieval Romania. It took place on 23 August 1595 between the Wallachian army led by Michael the Brave and the Ottoman army led by Sinan Pasha...
in 1595, promised that their old rights would be restored. As a result, 23,000 Székelys joined the Transylvanian army led by Stephen Bocskay
Stephen Bocskay
Stephen Bocskai or István Bocskai Stephen Bocskai or István Bocskai Stephen Bocskai or István Bocskai (or Bocskay, (1 January 1557 – 29 December 1606) was a HungarianCalvinist nobleman, Prince of Transylvania (1605–06), who defended Hungarian interests when Hungary was divided into Ottoman...
. They provided essential support to Michael the Brave in fighting the Ottoman
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
army. The next year, Sigismund Báthory withdrew his promises and brutally suppressed the revolting Székelys. In 1599, when Michael the Brave attacked Transylvania, Székelys joined Michael during the Battle of Şelimbăr
Battle of Selimbar
The Battle of Şelimbăr is one of the great events of medieval Romanian history. It took place on 18 October 1599 between the Wallachian army of Michael the Brave and the Transylvanian-Hungarian army of Andrew Bathory...
. With their support, Michael the Brave scored a victory over the troops of Andrew Báthory
Andrew Báthory
Andrew Báthory was a Hungarian Roman Catholic Cardinal, a Prince-Bishop of Warmia , and Prince of Transylvania . He was also Grand Master of the Order of the Dragon.-Life:Báthory was born at Szilágysomlyó, Transylvania...
. The escaping prince was later captured and killed in Székely Land. As a reward for their support, Michael restored their old freedom. Székelys also destroyed the royal fortresses built on their land by John Sigismund. Princes of Transylvania learnt from these events and the returning Sigismund Báthory
Sigismund Báthory
Sigismund Báthory was Prince of Transylvania.-Biography:Hailing from the Báthory family's Somlyó branch, he was the son of Christopher Báthory, Voivod of Transylvania, and nephew of Stephen Báthory, King of Poland...
, then Stephen Bocskay
Stephen Bocskay
Stephen Bocskai or István Bocskai Stephen Bocskai or István Bocskai Stephen Bocskai or István Bocskai (or Bocskay, (1 January 1557 – 29 December 1606) was a HungarianCalvinist nobleman, Prince of Transylvania (1605–06), who defended Hungarian interests when Hungary was divided into Ottoman...
, later Gabriel Bethlen
Gabriel Bethlen
Gabriel Bethlen was a prince of Transylvania , duke of Opole and leader of an anti-Habsburg insurrection in the Habsburg Royal Hungary. His last armed intervention in 1626 was part of the Thirty Years' War...
reinforced their freedom, also restored traditional offices like elected Seat Captains and elected judges. Even serfs were exempted from paying taxes in Székely Land.
Mózes Székely
Mózes Székely
Mózes Székely was a Transylvanian nobleman of Székely descent and briefly ruled as Prince of Transylvania.- Biography :...
(1553–1603) is the only Székely monarch of the Transylvanian Principality. His personality, walk of life, historical faith, fights for the Hungarians let us to rate him among the representatives like the last freely elected Hungarian national king John II., known as Zsigmond János, or the monarchs after him like István Báthory, István Bocskai, Gábor Bethlen and Ferenc Rákóczi II. All these great Hungarian characters sacrificed their living for the maintain of the institution of Hungarian nation.
During the 17th century, Székelys continued to be one of the most important components of the Transylvanian army. They could be mobilised quickly, and were under arms in a couple of weeks, at the disposal of the Prince. While the rights of the three classes in arms remained untouched, the social processes of the earlier centuries continued. The number of serfs within their society continuously increased. To maintain the number of infantrymen in the army and prevent them from choosing a more peaceful life as serfs, Transylvanian princes later re-introduced the taxation of Székely serfs.
First decades
After their military successes in Hungary against the Ottoman Empire in the 1680s, Habsburgs extended their influence to Transylvania, too. Habsburg troops took control of the Principality and Leopold ILeopold I, Holy Roman Emperor
| style="float:right;" | Leopold I was a Holy Roman Emperor, King of Hungary and King of Bohemia. A member of the Habsburg family, he was the second son of Emperor Ferdinand III and his first wife, Maria Anna of Spain. His maternal grandparents were Philip III of Spain and Margaret of Austria...
issued his Diploma Leopoldinum, the new constitution of Transylvania in 1691. The Diploma did not radically change the Székely privileges. In spite of this, taxation was soon introduced and villages had to accommodate troops of the Emperor. The Székelys paid the taxes and provided services, as they declared, on a "temporary basis" and "on their own will".
During the Rákóczi Uprising
Francis II Rákóczi
Francis II Rákóczi Hungarian aristocrat, he was the leader of the Hungarian uprising against the Habsburgs in 1703-11 as the prince of the Estates Confederated for Liberty of the Kingdom of Hungary. He was also Prince of Transylvania, an Imperial Prince, and a member of the Order of the Golden...
between 1703 and 1711, Székelys supported Francis II Rákóczi, the last elected Prince of Transylvania. When the Habsburgs took control of Transylvania after the uprising, Székelys were disarmed and their military services were no longer wanted. The offices of Seat Captains were wound up but the traditional democratic Székely institutions, like their judiciary system, remained unharmed for decades to come.
Setting up the Székely Border Guard
In 1762, Empress Maria TheresaMaria Theresa of Austria
Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina was the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, the Austrian Netherlands and Parma...
decided to set up border guard troops on the borders of Transylvania, based on the Military Frontier
Military Frontier
The Military Frontier was a borderland of Habsburg Austria and later the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, which acted as the cordon sanitaire against incursions from the Ottoman Empire...
system already in place on the Ottoman border area. Mostly Romanians
Romanians
The Romanians are an ethnic group native to Romania, who speak Romanian; they are the majority inhabitants of Romania....
were recruited in the southern Carpathians
Carpathian Mountains
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a range of mountains forming an arc roughly long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe...
(Fogaras
Fogaras
Fogaras is the name of a historic administrative county of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory is presently in central Romania . The capital of the county was Făgăraş .-Geography:...
area) and Székelys in the Eastern Carpathians
Carpathian Mountains
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a range of mountains forming an arc roughly long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe...
. The drafting was organised partly on voluntary, partly on compulsory basis, and resulted in conflicts in many places, especially in Székely Land. The Székelys requested that instead of the imperial officers, they have their own leaders according to the traditions, and that they are not ordered to go in action abroad. As the negotiations failed with the army, Székelys openly protested and some of the Seats contacted each other to start co-ordinated actions. As the drafting was only partly successful, the chief officer responsible for the recruitment gave up his plans and ordered that the so far distributed weapons are returned by the Székelys. They, however, gave back only part of the equipment and kept the rifles as a compensation for the weapons confiscated after the Rákóczi Uprising.
The next, already violent attempt by the imperial officers to recruit Székely border guards culminated in a tragic event, the Mádéfalva Massacre
Siculicidium
The Massacre at Madéfalva was a mass murder committed against Székelys by the Habsburg army in 1764, under Maria Theresa.-History:...
, commemorated until today. In December 1763, the men sought refuge from drafting in the mountains, at Mádéfalva , some of them equipped with weapons. On 7 January 1764, an army unit of 1300 soldiers, with two cannons, attacked the peaceful crowd and massacred hundreds of them. The drafting in Székely Land was quickly and easily completed after these events. Border guard troops were set up in every Seat except for Udvarhely and Maros Seat.
After the Mádéfalva Massacre, many Székelys crossed the Carpathians
Carpathian Mountains
The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians are a range of mountains forming an arc roughly long across Central and Eastern Europe, making them the second-longest mountain range in Europe...
and escaped to Moldova
Moldova
Moldova , officially the Republic of Moldova is a landlocked state in Eastern Europe, located between Romania to the West and Ukraine to the North, East and South. It declared itself an independent state with the same boundaries as the preceding Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1991, as part...
. Those who stayed in the Moldavian Voivodate, became one of the subgroups of Csángó
Csángó
The Csango people are a Hungarian ethnographic group of Roman Catholic faith living mostly in the Romanian region of Moldavia, especially in the Bacău County...
people. Others moved to the Bukovina
Bukovina
Bukovina is a historical region on the northern slopes of the northeastern Carpathian Mountains and the adjoining plains.-Name:The name Bukovina came into official use in 1775 with the region's annexation from the Principality of Moldavia to the possessions of the Habsburg Monarchy, which became...
Region and founded their final settlements with the help of General András Hadik. This group retained their traditions and are regarded to as the Székelys of Bukovina
Székelys of Bukovina
The Székelys of Bukovina are a small Hungarian ethnic community with a complex history. They live today in the Tolna and Baranya counties of Hungary, in Hunedoara County in Romania and in the Serbian province of Vojvodina.-Origins:...
.
The Military Frontier Organisation put an end to the autonomy of the Székely Nation in some respects. The self governance of the settlements was seriously hurt by the border guard commanders. They interfered with the election of judges, the local agriculture and schooling, also with the every-day life of the Székely guards. Property transactions or weddings could be done only with the permission of the officers. In local communities, however, many of the traditions were kept, the Székely pride and their strong desire for freedom remained. They organised their own life, set rules for the building of roads and bridges, also for the election of their leaders and jury members. (Most of these issues were decided by landlords in the noble counties.) The ancient system of redistributing common lands was still a practice by the end of the 18th century, but ceased to exist in a couple of decades. By the 1820s, only a couple settlements practiced the yearly land redistribution. The last examples include the capital of Aranyos Seat
Aranyos Seat
Aranyos seat was the seat of the Transylvanian Székelys living in the Valley of the Arieş River ....
, Felvinc (today: Unirea
Unirea
Unirea may refer to:Communes, districts or other places in Romania:* Unirea, a commune in Alba County* Unirea, a commune in Brăila County* Unirea, a commune in Călăraşi County* Unirea, a commune in Dolj County...
).
The 1848 Revolution
During the turbulent period of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848Hungarian Revolution of 1848
The Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was one of many of the European Revolutions of 1848 and closely linked to other revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas...
of 1848-49, Székelys supported the liberal parties pressing for full freedom of serfs and equal taxation for everybody.
The Assembly of Udvarhely
Udvarhely
Udvarhely was the name of an administrative county of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory is presently in central Romania . The capital of the county was Székelyudvarhely .-Geography:...
Seat (later followed by other Seats, too) decided already on 3 April 1848 that they would give up their remaining tax reliefs. Serfs in Háromszék
Háromszék
Háromszék is the name of a historic administrative county of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory is presently in central Romania...
were ordered by Székely border guards not to provide the traditional feudal services to their landlords. The decisions of the Seats were reinforced by the last Transylvanian Diet in June 1848.
Székelys also supported the decision of the Transylvanian Diet about the unification of Transylvania with Hungary. When the Habsburg Army, under the leadership of General Puchner, tried to take control of Transylvania, Székelys were the only serious resistance to his efforts. However, not equipped with artillery, they were quickly defeated. Maros Seat was occupied, Udvarhely Seat surrendered, Csík Seat declared neutrality. In this situation, the resistance was re-organised in Háromszék
Háromszék
Háromszék is the name of a historic administrative county of the Kingdom of Hungary. Its territory is presently in central Romania...
. On the assembly of the Háromszék in November, Áron Gábor
Áron Gábor
Áron Gábor was a Székely Hungarian artillery officer and national hero of the 1848-49 Hungarian Revolution. He became one of the leaders of Székely-Hungarian forces in Transylvania during the 1848 revolution against the Austrian Empire...
, a former artillery officer, convinced the delegates that instead of surrendering, they should try to manufacture cannons locally. In a couple of weeks, the first cannons were ready and were successfully deployed. During the following period, dozens of cannons were manufactured and used by the Székely Army. Half of the Transylvanian troops of General Puchner were engaged in fights with the resisting Háromszék. This prevented him from attacking the Várad Fortress (today: Oradea
Oradea
Oradea is the capital city of Bihor County, in the Crișana region of north-western Romania. The city has a population of 204,477, according to the 2009 estimates. The wider Oradea metropolitan area has a total population of 245,832.-Geography:...
) in a decisive moment and from opening a second front in the Hungarian military theatre.
By the end of 1848 - beginning of 1849, Székelys joined the army set up by General Józef Bem
Józef Bem
Józef Zachariasz Bem was a Polish general, an Ottoman Pasha and a national hero of Poland and Hungary, and a figure intertwined with other European nationalisms...
and took part in his successful campaigns driving out Habsburg troops from Transylvania. The successful campaign was finally crushed when the imperial Russian army intervened in Transylvania following a request from the Habsburg Empire.
Union with Hungary
In 1867, an agreement (CompromiseAusgleich
The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 established the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. The Compromise re-established the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Hungary, separate from and no longer subject to the Austrian Empire...
) was made between Austria and Hungary about the creation of the Dual Monarchy
Austria-Hungary
Austria-Hungary , more formally known as the Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of Saint Stephen, was a constitutional monarchic union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary in...
. According to the Compromise, Transylvania was united with the Kingdom of Hungary. A decade later, a new county system
Comitatus (Kingdom of Hungary)
A county is the name of a type of administrative units in the Kingdom of Hungary and in Hungary from the 10th century until the present day....
was introduced in the Kingdom, which put an end to the long tradition of Székely Seats.
Post-Trianon history
Since the Székely Land became a part of Romania in 1920, the Székelys have shared the fate of other ethnic Hungarians of Transylvania.Further information: Treaty of Trianon
Treaty of Trianon
The Treaty of Trianon was the peace agreement signed in 1920, at the end of World War I, between the Allies of World War I and Hungary . The treaty greatly redefined and reduced Hungary's borders. From its borders before World War I, it lost 72% of its territory, which was reduced from to...
, Hungarian minority in Romania, Magyar Autonomous Region