Great Famine (Greece)
Encyclopedia
The Great Famine was a period of mass starvation in Axis-occupied Greece, during World War II (1941–1944). The local population suffered greatly during this period, while the Axis Powers
initiated a policy of large scale plunder. Moreover, requisitions together with the Allied
blockade of Greece
, the ruined state of the country's infrastructure and the emergence of a powerful and well-connected black market, resulted in the Great Famine, with the mortality rate reaching a peak during the winter of 1941–1942. The great suffering and the pressure of the Greek Diaspora
eventually forced the British to partially lift the blockade, and from the summer of 1942, the International Red Cross was able to distribute supplies in sufficient quantities; however, the situation remained grim until the end of the occupation.
Fascist Italy
invaded
Greece from Albania
on 28 October 1940. However, the invasion was quickly turned into a humiliating defeat for the Italians and the Greek forces managed to penetrate deep into Albanian territory. On 6 April 1941, Germany
attacked Greece
and the Greek forces fell back quickly under the astonishing firepower of the Blitzkrieg
. Immediately following their victory, the occupation powers divided the country into 3 zones between which any movement of goods and people was strictly prohibited. The Germans occupied parts of Athens
, the region around Thessaloniki
, a few strategic outposts in the Aegean
and the island of Crete
, the Bulgarians held the northern regions of Thrace
and Eastern Macedonia, while the Italians controlled most of the mainland and the Ionian Islands
.
In general, the Axis powers viewed conquered nations as sources of raw materials, food and labor. As a matter of policy, subjugated nations were to provide material support to Germany and Italy. According to this principle, already from the outset of the occupation, German and Italian troops initiated a policy of wide-scale plunder of everything of value. Moreover, pillage, torture, executions, and civilian massacres throughout Greece were also part of the Axis agenda during the years of occupation. The German attitude toward occupied peoples was expressed succinctly in the words of Hermann Göring
in a letter to the Reich commissioners and military commanders of the occupied territories on 6 August 1942:
On the other hand, the Allied forces responded with a full naval blockade in order to weaken the Axis in its military efforts. This cut off all imports to Greece, including foods.
Farmers in Greece had to pay a 10% in kind tax on their produce and to sell to the collaborationist government at fixed prices all production above the subsistence level. The food price controls and rationing
that had been in place before the Greek defeat were now tightened. With the low government prices and newly imposed taxes, farmers went to great lengths to hide their produce from the officials and traders pulled their merchandise from the shelves, a factor that added to the severing of the foreign trade routes on which Greece traditionally dependeded for food imports. Thus, the scarcity of food supplies resulted in the increase of their prices, while the circulation of the German Occupation Reichsmark and the Italian Casa Mediterranea Drachma led soon to inflation. Under these circumstances, black market and rationing became the only means of food supply in the urban areas of Greece. Fishing was also prohibited, at least during the early period of occupation. Moreover, the Bulgarians forbade any transportation of grain from their zone, where 30% of the Greek pre-war production took place, to the rest of the country.
In mid-September 1941, when the famine was imminent, Berlin responded to enquiries of German officials in Greece:
Under these conditions, and contrary to the rational exploitation of the national resources applied to the occupied countries in Western and Northern Europe, the Germans in Greece resorted to a policy of plunder. Although the collaborationist government under Georgios Tsolakoglou
requested from the Axis to import grain before the winter this didn't have any serious impact: Germany and Italy sent a very low amount of grain while Bulgaria sent nothing at all. The few organized efforts by the Orthodox Church and Red Cross were unable to meet the needs of the population.
Determining factors of the food crisis were low food availability and curtailment of communications, partly due to the severe lack of transport facilities but especially because it was imposed on both goods and persons. Other factors were the attempt of the local government and the occupying forces to regulate the market and its prices.
, this was the worst famine the Greeks experienced from ancient times. Bodies of dead persons were secretly abandoned in cemeteries or at the streets. In other cases bodies were found days after the death had taken place. The sight of emaciated dead bodies was commonplace in the streets of Athens
.
The situation in Athens and the wider area with its port, Piraeus
, was out of control, the hyperinflation
was in full swing and the price of bread was increased 89-fold from April 1941 to June 1942. According to the records of the German army the mortality rate only in Athens reached 300 deaths per day during December 1941, while the estimates of the Red Cross were much higher, at 400 deaths while in some days the death toll reached 1,000. Apart from the urban areas the population of the islands was also affected by the famine, especially those living in Mykonos
, Syros
and Chios
.
There are no accurate numbers of the famine deaths due to the fact that civil registration records did not function during the occupation. In general, it is estimated that Greece suffered approximatelly 300,000 deaths during the Axis occupation as a result of famine and malnutrition. However, not all parts of Greece experienced equal levels of food scarcity. Although comprehensive data on regional famine severity does not exist, the available evidence indicates that the severe movement restrictions, the proximity to agricultural production and the level of urbanization were crucial factors of famine mortality.
from Turkey
, at September 1941. This assistance however was symbolic since one ship was unable to alleviate such an extreme situation. Because of the efforts of the Greek Diaspora
in the United States and Great Britain, the situation of the starving civilian population in Greece soon became a public issue in the Allied countries. The increasing public pressure finally led to the lifting of the naval blockade in February 1942. The plan carried under the auspices of the International Red Cross, while Sweden
offered for the transportation of 15,000 tons of Canadian wheat. Wheat shipments soon began and together with the rising temperatures of springtime, resulted in the reduction of the mortality rates. At the end of 1942 with the steady supply of sufficient quantities to the country's greatest ports, the mortality rate fell, however the food situation remained grim until the end of the occupation (1944).
The international relief was focused mainly on children. In Athens the Red Cross started to provide daily milk rations, medical services and clothing to children younger than two years. In following March the occupiers and Allied forces agreed to the establishment of the Swedish-run Joint Relief Commission to reorganize the public food supply system. On the other hand, the occupiers moreover committed to replace all appropriated agricultural products with food imports of equal calorific value and relaxed the harshest mobility restrictions and price regulations.
, was appointed Reich's special commissioner in Greece. Neubacher's objective was to sustain Axis operation in Greece without destroying the Greek economy. His initiative was eased by the supplies provided by the International Red Cross.
From 1943 large areas of the countryside that witnessed reprisal operation, burning of settlements and massive executions by the Germans, like in Epirus
and Thessaly
. The military operations of the German against rural areas due to the rising guerrilla activity sent large numbers of people into the towns or to the mountains, denuding that way part of the countryside of its labor force. Famine conditions appeared again during the winter of 1943–1944 in Aetolia
and some islands. Moreover, the rural population did not receive Red Cross supplies like the cities, either because the Germans retaliated against villages suspected of supporting guerrillas, or because they feared that the supplies would fall into the hands of the resistance. On the other hand, the largest Greek resistance organization, the National Liberation Front (EAM) took the initiative and distributed food and clothing to the regions it controlled at that time.
, by Nikos Kazantzakis
, which reflected the general
anarchy and starvation of that time.
As of 2011, the idea that a German chancellor will impose strict austerity measures on Greece as part of the financial debt crisis that the country faces, cannot be tolerated by a large number of Greeks. In fact, many Greek citizens still believe that Germany owes Greece reparations for acts committed during World War II, including those that led to the Great Famine and the massacres committed by German troops, activities that caused hundreds of thousands of Greek citizens to lose their lives.
Axis Powers
The Axis powers , also known as the Axis alliance, Axis nations, Axis countries, or just the Axis, was an alignment of great powers during the mid-20th century that fought World War II against the Allies. It began in 1936 with treaties of friendship between Germany and Italy and between Germany and...
initiated a policy of large scale plunder. Moreover, requisitions together with the Allied
Allies of World War II
The Allies of World War II were the countries that opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War . Former Axis states contributing to the Allied victory are not considered Allied states...
blockade of Greece
Greece
Greece , officially the Hellenic Republic , and historically Hellas or the Republic of Greece in English, is a country in southeastern Europe....
, the ruined state of the country's infrastructure and the emergence of a powerful and well-connected black market, resulted in the Great Famine, with the mortality rate reaching a peak during the winter of 1941–1942. The great suffering and the pressure of the Greek Diaspora
Greek diaspora
The Greek diaspora, also known as Hellenic Diaspora or Diaspora of Hellenism, is a term used to refer to the communities of Greek people living outside the traditional Greek homelands, but more commonly in southeast Europe and Asia Minor...
eventually forced the British to partially lift the blockade, and from the summer of 1942, the International Red Cross was able to distribute supplies in sufficient quantities; however, the situation remained grim until the end of the occupation.
Background
Fascist Italy
"Fascist Italy" refers to Italy under the rule of Benito Mussolini and Italian Fascism. The Fascists led two polities:*The Kingdom of Italy , under the National Fascist Party, and,...
invaded
Greco-Italian War
The Greco-Italian War was a conflict between Italy and Greece which lasted from 28 October 1940 to 23 April 1941. It marked the beginning of the Balkans Campaign of World War II...
Greece from Albania
Albania under Italy
The Albanian Kingdom existed as a protectorate of the Kingdom of Italy. It was practically a union between Italy and Albania, officially led by Italy's King Victor Emmanuel III and its government: Albania was led by Italian governors, after being militarily occupied by Italy, from 1939 until 1943...
on 28 October 1940. However, the invasion was quickly turned into a humiliating defeat for the Italians and the Greek forces managed to penetrate deep into Albanian territory. On 6 April 1941, Germany
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany , also known as the Third Reich , but officially called German Reich from 1933 to 1943 and Greater German Reich from 26 June 1943 onward, is the name commonly used to refer to the state of Germany from 1933 to 1945, when it was a totalitarian dictatorship ruled by...
attacked Greece
Battle of Greece
The Battle of Greece is the common name for the invasion and conquest of Greece by Nazi Germany in April 1941. Greece was supported by British Commonwealth forces, while the Germans' Axis allies Italy and Bulgaria played secondary roles...
and the Greek forces fell back quickly under the astonishing firepower of the Blitzkrieg
Blitzkrieg
For other uses of the word, see: Blitzkrieg Blitzkrieg is an anglicized word describing all-motorised force concentration of tanks, infantry, artillery, combat engineers and air power, concentrating overwhelming force at high speed to break through enemy lines, and, once the lines are broken,...
. Immediately following their victory, the occupation powers divided the country into 3 zones between which any movement of goods and people was strictly prohibited. The Germans occupied parts of Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
, the region around Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki , historically also known as Thessalonica, Salonika or Salonica, is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of the region of Central Macedonia as well as the capital of the Decentralized Administration of Macedonia and Thrace...
, a few strategic outposts in the Aegean
Aegean Sea
The Aegean Sea[p] is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between the mainlands of Greece and Turkey. In the north, it is connected to the Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus...
and the island of Crete
Crete
Crete is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits...
, the Bulgarians held the northern regions of Thrace
Western Thrace
Western Thrace or simply Thrace is a geographic and historical region of Greece, located between the Nestos and Evros rivers in the northeast of the country. Together with the regions of Macedonia and Epirus, it is often referred to informally as northern Greece...
and Eastern Macedonia, while the Italians controlled most of the mainland and the Ionian Islands
Ionian Islands
The Ionian Islands are a group of islands in Greece. They are traditionally called the Heptanese, i.e...
.
Hermann Göring
Hermann Wilhelm Göring, was a German politician, military leader, and a leading member of the Nazi Party. He was a veteran of World War I as an ace fighter pilot, and a recipient of the coveted Pour le Mérite, also known as "The Blue Max"...
in a letter to the Reich commissioners and military commanders of the occupied territories on 6 August 1942:
First months of occupation
Within the occupation zones, the confiscation of fuel and all means of transportation, including fishing boats and pack animals, prevented any transfer of food and other supplies and reduced mobility to a minimum. The occupiers seized strategic industries and appropriated or bought them at low prices, paying with occupation marks they circulated all stocks of commodities like tobacco, olive oil, cotton, and leather and transferred them to their home countries. Unemployment rose to extreme levels, while extraordinary levies were extorted from the Greek collaborationist government to sustain the occupying forces. Occupied Greece was not only burdened with the occupation costs of the German and Italian armies but also with the expenses of Axis military projects in the Eastern Mediterranean. Unlike the rest of the occupied countries, whose costs were limited to their actual defense appropriations prior to the Axis invasion, the size of Greece's levy in 1941-1942 reached 113.7% of the local national income.On the other hand, the Allied forces responded with a full naval blockade in order to weaken the Axis in its military efforts. This cut off all imports to Greece, including foods.
Farmers in Greece had to pay a 10% in kind tax on their produce and to sell to the collaborationist government at fixed prices all production above the subsistence level. The food price controls and rationing
Rationing
Rationing is the controlled distribution of scarce resources, goods, or services. Rationing controls the size of the ration, one's allotted portion of the resources being distributed on a particular day or at a particular time.- In economics :...
that had been in place before the Greek defeat were now tightened. With the low government prices and newly imposed taxes, farmers went to great lengths to hide their produce from the officials and traders pulled their merchandise from the shelves, a factor that added to the severing of the foreign trade routes on which Greece traditionally dependeded for food imports. Thus, the scarcity of food supplies resulted in the increase of their prices, while the circulation of the German Occupation Reichsmark and the Italian Casa Mediterranea Drachma led soon to inflation. Under these circumstances, black market and rationing became the only means of food supply in the urban areas of Greece. Fishing was also prohibited, at least during the early period of occupation. Moreover, the Bulgarians forbade any transportation of grain from their zone, where 30% of the Greek pre-war production took place, to the rest of the country.
In mid-September 1941, when the famine was imminent, Berlin responded to enquiries of German officials in Greece:
Under these conditions, and contrary to the rational exploitation of the national resources applied to the occupied countries in Western and Northern Europe, the Germans in Greece resorted to a policy of plunder. Although the collaborationist government under Georgios Tsolakoglou
Georgios Tsolakoglou
Georgios Tsolakoglou was a Greek military officer who became the first Prime Minister of the Greek collaborationist government during the Axis Occupation in 1941-1942.-Military career:...
requested from the Axis to import grain before the winter this didn't have any serious impact: Germany and Italy sent a very low amount of grain while Bulgaria sent nothing at all. The few organized efforts by the Orthodox Church and Red Cross were unable to meet the needs of the population.
Determining factors of the food crisis were low food availability and curtailment of communications, partly due to the severe lack of transport facilities but especially because it was imposed on both goods and persons. Other factors were the attempt of the local government and the occupying forces to regulate the market and its prices.
Winter of 1941–1942
The nutritional situation became critical in the summer of 1941 and in the fall turned into a full-blown famine. Especially in the first winter of occupation (1941–1942) food shortage was acute and famine struck especially in the urban centers of the country. Food shortage reached a climax and a famine was unavoidable. During that winter the mortality rate reached a peak, while according to British historian, Mark MazowerMark Mazower
Mark A. Mazower is a British historian. His expertise is Greece, the Balkans and, more generally, 20th century Europe. He is currently a professor of history at Columbia University in New York City.-Career:...
, this was the worst famine the Greeks experienced from ancient times. Bodies of dead persons were secretly abandoned in cemeteries or at the streets. In other cases bodies were found days after the death had taken place. The sight of emaciated dead bodies was commonplace in the streets of Athens
Athens
Athens , is the capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica region and is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around 3,400 years. Classical Athens was a powerful city-state...
.
The situation in Athens and the wider area with its port, Piraeus
Piraeus
Piraeus is a city in the region of Attica, Greece. Piraeus is located within the Athens Urban Area, 12 km southwest from its city center , and lies along the east coast of the Saronic Gulf....
, was out of control, the hyperinflation
Hyperinflation
In economics, hyperinflation is inflation that is very high or out of control. While the real values of the specific economic items generally stay the same in terms of relatively stable foreign currencies, in hyperinflationary conditions the general price level within a specific economy increases...
was in full swing and the price of bread was increased 89-fold from April 1941 to June 1942. According to the records of the German army the mortality rate only in Athens reached 300 deaths per day during December 1941, while the estimates of the Red Cross were much higher, at 400 deaths while in some days the death toll reached 1,000. Apart from the urban areas the population of the islands was also affected by the famine, especially those living in Mykonos
Mykonos
Mykonos is a Greek island, part of the Cyclades, lying between Tinos, Syros, Paros and Naxos. The island spans an area of and rises to an elevation of at its highest point. There are 9,320 inhabitants most of whom live in the largest town, Mykonos, which lies on the west coast. The town is also...
, Syros
Syros
Syros , or Siros or Syra is a Greek island in the Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea. It is located south-east of Athens. The area of the island is . The largest towns are Ermoupoli, Ano Syros, and Vari. Ermoupoli is the capital of the island and the Cyclades...
and Chios
Chios
Chios is the fifth largest of the Greek islands, situated in the Aegean Sea, seven kilometres off the Asia Minor coast. The island is separated from Turkey by the Chios Strait. The island is noted for its strong merchant shipping community, its unique mastic gum and its medieval villages...
.
There are no accurate numbers of the famine deaths due to the fact that civil registration records did not function during the occupation. In general, it is estimated that Greece suffered approximatelly 300,000 deaths during the Axis occupation as a result of famine and malnutrition. However, not all parts of Greece experienced equal levels of food scarcity. Although comprehensive data on regional famine severity does not exist, the available evidence indicates that the severe movement restrictions, the proximity to agricultural production and the level of urbanization were crucial factors of famine mortality.
Lifting of the Allied blockade
The first ship with food supplies that was permitted to reach Greece was the SS KurtuluşSS Kurtulus
SS Kurtuluş was a Turkish cargo ship which became famous for her humanitarian role in carrying food aid during the Great Famine Greece suffered under the Occupation of Greece by Nazi Germany in World War II...
from Turkey
Turkey
Turkey , known officially as the Republic of Turkey , is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe...
, at September 1941. This assistance however was symbolic since one ship was unable to alleviate such an extreme situation. Because of the efforts of the Greek Diaspora
Greek diaspora
The Greek diaspora, also known as Hellenic Diaspora or Diaspora of Hellenism, is a term used to refer to the communities of Greek people living outside the traditional Greek homelands, but more commonly in southeast Europe and Asia Minor...
in the United States and Great Britain, the situation of the starving civilian population in Greece soon became a public issue in the Allied countries. The increasing public pressure finally led to the lifting of the naval blockade in February 1942. The plan carried under the auspices of the International Red Cross, while Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
offered for the transportation of 15,000 tons of Canadian wheat. Wheat shipments soon began and together with the rising temperatures of springtime, resulted in the reduction of the mortality rates. At the end of 1942 with the steady supply of sufficient quantities to the country's greatest ports, the mortality rate fell, however the food situation remained grim until the end of the occupation (1944).
The international relief was focused mainly on children. In Athens the Red Cross started to provide daily milk rations, medical services and clothing to children younger than two years. In following March the occupiers and Allied forces agreed to the establishment of the Swedish-run Joint Relief Commission to reorganize the public food supply system. On the other hand, the occupiers moreover committed to replace all appropriated agricultural products with food imports of equal calorific value and relaxed the harshest mobility restrictions and price regulations.
Nazi bail-out plan and the resistance
As the collapse of the Greek monetary system was imminent, the Germans were alarmed that such a possibility would render worthless the flow of Drachmas to their troops. In order to deal with this situation, Hermann NeubacherHermann Neubacher
Hermann Neubacher was an Austrian Nazi politician who held a number of diplomatic posts in the Third Reich. During the Second World War, he was appointed as the leading German official for the Balkans.-Austrian activism:...
, was appointed Reich's special commissioner in Greece. Neubacher's objective was to sustain Axis operation in Greece without destroying the Greek economy. His initiative was eased by the supplies provided by the International Red Cross.
From 1943 large areas of the countryside that witnessed reprisal operation, burning of settlements and massive executions by the Germans, like in Epirus
Epirus (periphery)
Epirus , formally the Epirus Region , is a geographical and administrative region in northwestern Greece. It borders the regions of West Macedonia and Thessaly to the east, West Greece to the south, the Ionian Sea and the Ionian Islands to the west and the country of Albania to the north. The...
and Thessaly
Thessaly
Thessaly is a traditional geographical region and an administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient region of the same name. Before the Greek Dark Ages, Thessaly was known as Aeolia, and appears thus in Homer's Odyssey....
. The military operations of the German against rural areas due to the rising guerrilla activity sent large numbers of people into the towns or to the mountains, denuding that way part of the countryside of its labor force. Famine conditions appeared again during the winter of 1943–1944 in Aetolia
Aetolia
Aetolia is a mountainous region of Greece on the north coast of the Gulf of Corinth, forming the eastern part of the modern prefecture of Aetolia-Acarnania.-Geography:...
and some islands. Moreover, the rural population did not receive Red Cross supplies like the cities, either because the Germans retaliated against villages suspected of supporting guerrillas, or because they feared that the supplies would fall into the hands of the resistance. On the other hand, the largest Greek resistance organization, the National Liberation Front (EAM) took the initiative and distributed food and clothing to the regions it controlled at that time.
Impact on literature and thought
In the everyday Greek language the word "occupation" indicates famine and hunger due to the harsh situation the Greek population faced during these years. Moreover, various works mention the severe situation faced by the Greek population during the years of occupation. One of these is the novel Zorba the GreekZorba the Greek
Zorba the Greek is a 1964 film based on the novel Zorba the Greek by Nikos Kazantzakis. The film was directed by Cypriot Michael Cacoyannis and the title character was played by Anthony Quinn...
, by Nikos Kazantzakis
Nikos Kazantzakis
Nikos Kazantzakis was a Greek writer and philosopher, celebrated for his novel Zorba the Greek, considered his magnum opus...
, which reflected the general
anarchy and starvation of that time.
As of 2011, the idea that a German chancellor will impose strict austerity measures on Greece as part of the financial debt crisis that the country faces, cannot be tolerated by a large number of Greeks. In fact, many Greek citizens still believe that Germany owes Greece reparations for acts committed during World War II, including those that led to the Great Famine and the massacres committed by German troops, activities that caused hundreds of thousands of Greek citizens to lose their lives.
See also
- Blockade of Germany (1939–1945)
- Dutch famine of 1944Dutch famine of 1944The Dutch famine of 1944, known as the Hongerwinter in Dutch, was a famine that took place in the German-occupied part of the Netherlands, especially in the densely populated western provinces above the great rivers, during the winter of 1944-1945, near the end of World War II. A German blockade...
- HolodomorHolodomorThe Holodomor was a man-made famine in the Ukrainian SSR between 1932 and 1933. During the famine, which is also known as the "terror-famine in Ukraine" and "famine-genocide in Ukraine", millions of Ukrainians died of starvation in a peacetime catastrophe unprecedented in the history of...