Glanders
Encyclopedia
Glanders (Latin
: Malleus German
: Rotz) (also known as "Equinia," "Farcy," and "Malleus") is an infectious disease
that occurs primarily in horses, mule
s, and donkeys. It can be contracted by other animals such as dogs, cats and goats. It is caused by infection with the bacterium Burkholderia mallei
, usually by ingestion of contaminated
food or water. Symptoms of glanders include the formation of nodular lesions in the lungs and ulceration of the mucous membranes in the upper respiratory tract. The acute form results in coughing, fever and the release of an infectious nasal discharge, followed by septicaemia and death within days. In the chronic form, nasal and subcutaneous nodules develop, eventually ulcerating. Death can occur within months, while survivors act as carriers.
Glanders is endemic in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Central and South America. It has been eradicated from North America, Australia and most of Europe through surveillance and destruction of affected animals, and import restrictions.
Burkholderia mallei
is able to infect humans and is therefore classed as a zoonotic
agent. Transmission occurs by direct contact with infected animals and entry is through skin abrasions, nasal and oral mucosal surfaces, or by inhalation.
The mallein test is a sensitive and specific clinical test for glanders. Mallein (ATCvet code: ), a protein fraction of the glanders organism (Burkholderia mallei
), is injected intradermo-palpebrally or given by eye-drop. In infected animals, the eyelid swells markedly in 1 or 2 days.
(BW) or bioterrorism
agent, as is the closely related organism, Burkholderia pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis
. During World War I
, Glanders was believed to have been spread deliberately by German
agents to infect large numbers of Russian
horses and mules on the Eastern Front
. Other agents attempted to introduce the disease in the United States and Argentina. This had an effect on troop and supply convoys as well as on artillery movement, which were dependent on horses and mules. Human cases in Russia increased with the infections during and after WWI. The Japan
ese deliberately infected horses, civilians, and prisoners of war with B. mallei at the Pinfang (China) Institute
during World War II
.
The U.S. studied this agent as a possible BW weapon in 1943–44 but did not weaponize it. U.S. interest in Glanders (Agent LA) continued through the 1950s, except it had an inexplicable tendency to lose virulence in the lab, making it difficult to weaponize. The Soviet Union
is also believed to have been interested in B. mallei as a potential BW agent after World War II.
Latin
Latin is an Italic language originally spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. It, along with most European languages, is a descendant of the ancient Proto-Indo-European language. Although it is considered a dead language, a number of scholars and members of the Christian clergy speak it fluently, and...
: Malleus German
German language
German is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. With an estimated 90 – 98 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and is the most widely-spoken first language in the European Union....
: Rotz) (also known as "Equinia," "Farcy," and "Malleus") is an infectious disease
Infectious disease
Infectious diseases, also known as communicable diseases, contagious diseases or transmissible diseases comprise clinically evident illness resulting from the infection, presence and growth of pathogenic biological agents in an individual host organism...
that occurs primarily in horses, mule
Mule
A mule is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. Horses and donkeys are different species, with different numbers of chromosomes. Of the two F1 hybrids between these two species, a mule is easier to obtain than a hinny...
s, and donkeys. It can be contracted by other animals such as dogs, cats and goats. It is caused by infection with the bacterium Burkholderia mallei
Burkholderia mallei
Burkholderia mallei is a gram-negative bipolar aerobic bacterium, a Burkholderia-genus human and animal pathogen causing Glanders; the Latin name of this disease gave name to the causative agent species...
, usually by ingestion of contaminated
Contamination
Contamination is the presence of a minor and unwanted constituent in material, physical body, natural environment, at a workplace, etc.-Specifics:"Contamination" also has more specific meanings in science:...
food or water. Symptoms of glanders include the formation of nodular lesions in the lungs and ulceration of the mucous membranes in the upper respiratory tract. The acute form results in coughing, fever and the release of an infectious nasal discharge, followed by septicaemia and death within days. In the chronic form, nasal and subcutaneous nodules develop, eventually ulcerating. Death can occur within months, while survivors act as carriers.
Glanders is endemic in Africa, Asia, the Middle East, Central and South America. It has been eradicated from North America, Australia and most of Europe through surveillance and destruction of affected animals, and import restrictions.
Burkholderia mallei
Burkholderia mallei
Burkholderia mallei is a gram-negative bipolar aerobic bacterium, a Burkholderia-genus human and animal pathogen causing Glanders; the Latin name of this disease gave name to the causative agent species...
is able to infect humans and is therefore classed as a zoonotic
Zoonosis
A zoonosis or zoonoseis any infectious disease that can be transmitted from non-human animals to humans or from humans to non-human animals . In a study of 1415 pathogens known to affect humans, 61% were zoonotic...
agent. Transmission occurs by direct contact with infected animals and entry is through skin abrasions, nasal and oral mucosal surfaces, or by inhalation.
The mallein test is a sensitive and specific clinical test for glanders. Mallein (ATCvet code: ), a protein fraction of the glanders organism (Burkholderia mallei
Burkholderia mallei
Burkholderia mallei is a gram-negative bipolar aerobic bacterium, a Burkholderia-genus human and animal pathogen causing Glanders; the Latin name of this disease gave name to the causative agent species...
), is injected intradermo-palpebrally or given by eye-drop. In infected animals, the eyelid swells markedly in 1 or 2 days.
Biological warfare use
Due to the high mortality rate in humans and the small number of organisms required to establish infection, Burkholderia mallei is regarded as a potential biological warfareBiological warfare
Biological warfare is the use of biological toxins or infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi with intent to kill or incapacitate humans, animals or plants as an act of war...
(BW) or bioterrorism
Bioterrorism
Bioterrorism is terrorism involving the intentional release or dissemination of biological agents. These agents are bacteria, viruses, or toxins, and may be in a naturally occurring or a human-modified form. For the use of this method in warfare, see biological warfare.-Definition:According to the...
agent, as is the closely related organism, Burkholderia pseudomallei, the causative agent of melioidosis
Melioidosis
Melioidosis is an infectious disease caused by a Gram-negative bacterium, Burkholderia pseudomallei, found in soil and water. It is of public health importance in endemic areas, particularly in Thailand and northern Australia. It exists in acute and chronic forms. Symptoms may include pain in...
. During World War I
World War I
World War I , which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939, and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918...
, Glanders was believed to have been spread deliberately by German
German Empire
The German Empire refers to Germany during the "Second Reich" period from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.The German...
agents to infect large numbers of Russian
Russian Empire
The Russian Empire was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the Soviet Union...
horses and mules on the Eastern Front
Eastern Front (World War I)
The Eastern Front was a theatre of war during World War I in Central and, primarily, Eastern Europe. The term is in contrast to the Western Front. Despite the geographical separation, the events in the two theatres strongly influenced each other...
. Other agents attempted to introduce the disease in the United States and Argentina. This had an effect on troop and supply convoys as well as on artillery movement, which were dependent on horses and mules. Human cases in Russia increased with the infections during and after WWI. The Japan
Japan
Japan is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south...
ese deliberately infected horses, civilians, and prisoners of war with B. mallei at the Pinfang (China) Institute
Unit 731
was a covert biological and chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II. It was responsible for some of the most notorious war crimes carried out by Japanese...
during World War II
World War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
.
The U.S. studied this agent as a possible BW weapon in 1943–44 but did not weaponize it. U.S. interest in Glanders (Agent LA) continued through the 1950s, except it had an inexplicable tendency to lose virulence in the lab, making it difficult to weaponize. The Soviet Union
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union , officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics , was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991....
is also believed to have been interested in B. mallei as a potential BW agent after World War II.
External links
- CDC article on the bioterrorism threat of glanders
- Animal health aspects of glanders
- Center for Biosecurity Agent Fact Sheet
- Burkholderia mallei genomes and related information at PATRIC, a Bioinformatics Resource Center funded by NIAID
- Notes On Glander Disease in Horse