Funj sultanate of Sinnar
Encyclopedia
The Funj Sultanate of Sennar (sometimes spelled Sinnar), known in Sudanese traditions as the Blue Sultanate , was a sultanate in the north of Sudan
, named Funj after the ethnic group
of its dynasty or Sinnar (or Sennar) after its capital
, which ruled a substantial area of northeast Africa
between 1504 and 1821.
formerly controlled by Makuria
was home to a number of small states and subject to frequent incursions by desert nomads. The situation in Alodia
is less well known, but it also seems as though that state had collapsed. The area was reunified under Abdallah Jamma, the gatherer, who came from the eastern regions that had grown wealthy and powerful from the trade on the Red Sea
. Abdallah's empire was short lived as in the early 16th century the Funj people under Amara Dunqas
arrived from the south, having been driven north by the Shilluk. The Funj defeated Abdallah and set up their own kingdom based at Sennar
.
and Christianity
. Islam
also had an important influence, and in 1523 the Sennar monarchy officially converted to Islam, though many elements of the previous beliefs continued.
, the Butana
, the Bayuda, and southern Kordofan. This caused immediate tensions with its neighbours. Ethiopia
felt it was much threatened but its internal problems prevented intervention. Newly Ottoman
Egypt
also saw the new state as a threat and invaded in force, but then failed to conquer the area, so the Ottoman forces fortified the border and consolidated their hold on northern Nubia. This border would hold until 1821.
Relations with Ethiopia were more strained as both states competed over lowlands between their two states. Eventually the Ethiopians moved their capital to nearby Gondar
and secured their influence over these areas. Conflicts with the Shilluk to the south continued, but later the two were forced into an uneasy alliance to combat the growing might of the Dinka. Under Sultan Badi II
, Sennar defeated the Kingdom of Taqali to the west and made its ruler (styled Woster or Makk) its vassal.
: horsemen drawn from the nobility, armed with long broadsword
s as the toe stirrups they used did not permit the use of lance
s. These riders were armoured with chain mail
while the horses were covered in thick quilt
s and copper headgear. A greater mass of troops were infantry carrying swords and armoured. This permanent standing army, the largest in East Africa
until the 1810s, was garrisoned in castles and forts throughout the sultanate. Reliance on a standing army meant that the professional armies fielded by Sennar were usually smaller, but highly effective against their less organized rivals.
There was a sharp division between those who were the heirs of the ancient kingdom of Alodia
and the rest of Sennar. The Alodians adopted the mantle of the defeated Abdallah Jamma and came to be known as the Abdallab. In the late 16th century they rose in revolt under Ajib the Great. Ajib routed the Kings of Sennar, first making them his vassals and then seizing almost the entire kingdom in 1606. The Sennar monarchy regrouped under Adlan I
, defeating Ajib in a pair of decisive battles. Eventually a compromise was reached whereby Ajib and his successors would rule the Sennar province of Dongola
with a great deal of autonomy.
and became much concerned about the lack of orthodoxy in the kingdom. The monarchy of Sennar had long been regarded as semi-divine, in keeping with ancient traditions, but this idea ran strongly counter to Islam. Many festivals and rituals also persisted from earlier days, and a number them involved massive consumption of alcohol
. These traditions were also abandoned.
who insisted it was rightfully their duty to mete out justice.
In 1762 Badi IV
was overthrown in a coup launched by Abu Likayik of the red Hamaj from the northeast of the country. Abu Likayik installed another member of the royal family as his puppet sultan and ruled as regent. This began long conflict between the Funj sultans attempting to reassert their independence and authority and the Hamaj regents attempting to maintain control of the true power of the state.
These internal divisions greatly weakened the state and in the late 18th century Mek Adlan II, son of Mek Taifara, took power during a turbulent time at which a Turkish presence was being established in the Funj kingdom. The Turkish ruler, Al-Tahir Agha
, married Khadeeja, daughter of Mek Adlan II. This paved the way for the assimilation of the Funj into the Ottoman Empire.
In 1821, Ismail bin Muhammad Ali the general and son of the nominally Ottoman
khedive
of Egypt
, Muhammad Ali
, led an army into Sennar; he encountered no resistance from the last king, whose realm was promptly absorbed into Ottoman Egypt. The region was subsequently absorbed into the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
and the independent Republic of Sudan on that country's independence in 1956.
The rulers of Sennar held the title of Mek (sultan). Their regnal numbers
vary from source to source.
Sudan
Sudan , officially the Republic of the Sudan , is a country in North Africa, sometimes considered part of the Middle East politically. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the...
, named Funj after the ethnic group
Funj people
The Funj are an ethnic group in present day Sudan. Their origins are not clearly known, but they are recorded as moving into Nubia from the Sudd to the south in the early 16th century, fleeing the pressure of the Shilluk...
of its dynasty or Sinnar (or Sennar) after its capital
Sennar
Sennar is a town on the Blue Nile in Sudan and capital of the state of Sennar. For several centuries it was the capital of the Funj Kingdom of Sennar. It had an estimated population of 100,000 inhabitants in the early 19th century. The modern town lies 17km SSE of the ruins of the ancient capital...
, which ruled a substantial area of northeast Africa
Africa
Africa is the world's second largest and second most populous continent, after Asia. At about 30.2 million km² including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earth's total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area...
between 1504 and 1821.
Origin
In the 15th century the part of NubiaNubia
Nubia is a region along the Nile river, which is located in northern Sudan and southern Egypt.There were a number of small Nubian kingdoms throughout the Middle Ages, the last of which collapsed in 1504, when Nubia became divided between Egypt and the Sennar sultanate resulting in the Arabization...
formerly controlled by Makuria
Makuria
The Kingdom of Makuria was a kingdom located in what is today Northern Sudan and Southern Egypt. It was one of a group of Nubian kingdoms that emerged during the decline of the Aksumite Empire, which it had been part of from approximately 4BC to AD 950...
was home to a number of small states and subject to frequent incursions by desert nomads. The situation in Alodia
Alodia
Alodia or Alwa was the southernmost of the three kingdoms of Christian Nubia; the other two were Nobatia and Makuria to the north.Much about this kingdom is still unknown, despite its thousand year existence and considerable power and geographic size. Due to fewer excavations far less is known...
is less well known, but it also seems as though that state had collapsed. The area was reunified under Abdallah Jamma, the gatherer, who came from the eastern regions that had grown wealthy and powerful from the trade on the Red Sea
Red Sea
The Red Sea is a seawater inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. The connection to the ocean is in the south through the Bab el Mandeb strait and the Gulf of Aden. In the north, there is the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez...
. Abdallah's empire was short lived as in the early 16th century the Funj people under Amara Dunqas
Amara Dunqas
Amara Dunqas was the first ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar . According to James Bruce, he founded the city of Sennar, after the Wad 'Ajib had been defeated by the Funj in a battle near Arbaji moved the feat of government of Wed Ageeb to Herbagi, that he might be more immediately under their own...
arrived from the south, having been driven north by the Shilluk. The Funj defeated Abdallah and set up their own kingdom based at Sennar
Sennar
Sennar is a town on the Blue Nile in Sudan and capital of the state of Sennar. For several centuries it was the capital of the Funj Kingdom of Sennar. It had an estimated population of 100,000 inhabitants in the early 19th century. The modern town lies 17km SSE of the ruins of the ancient capital...
.
Religion
The Funj had originally practiced a religious mix of AnimismAnimism
Animism refers to the belief that non-human entities are spiritual beings, or at least embody some kind of life-principle....
and Christianity
Christianity
Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in canonical gospels and other New Testament writings...
. Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
also had an important influence, and in 1523 the Sennar monarchy officially converted to Islam, though many elements of the previous beliefs continued.
Expansion & Conflilcts
Sennar expanded rapidly at the expense of neighboring states. Its power was extended over the GeziraAl Jazirah (state)
Al Jazirah , also spelled Gezira, is one of the 15 states of Sudan. The state lies between the Blue Nile and the White Nile in the east-central region of the country. It has an area of 27,549 km². The name comes from the Arabic word for peninsula. Wad Madani is the capital of the state.It is...
, the Butana
Butana
Butana is a region in Sudan. It is bordered by the Nile from Khartoum to Atbarah, by the Atbarah River from Atbarah to Ethiopia, by the Ethiopian border from the Atbarah River to the Blue Nile, and by the Blue Nile from Ethiopia to Khartoum. It includes most of the state of Al Qadarif plus parts...
, the Bayuda, and southern Kordofan. This caused immediate tensions with its neighbours. Ethiopia
Ethiopia
Ethiopia , officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth-largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2...
felt it was much threatened but its internal problems prevented intervention. Newly Ottoman
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
also saw the new state as a threat and invaded in force, but then failed to conquer the area, so the Ottoman forces fortified the border and consolidated their hold on northern Nubia. This border would hold until 1821.
Relations with Ethiopia were more strained as both states competed over lowlands between their two states. Eventually the Ethiopians moved their capital to nearby Gondar
Gondar
Gondar or Gonder is a city in Ethiopia, which was once the old imperial capital and capital of the historic Begemder Province. As a result, the old province of Begemder is sometimes referred to as Gondar...
and secured their influence over these areas. Conflicts with the Shilluk to the south continued, but later the two were forced into an uneasy alliance to combat the growing might of the Dinka. Under Sultan Badi II
Badi II
Badi II, known as The Bearded , was a ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar. During his reign, the Kingdom of Taqali to the west was defeated and made a vassal state.- References :...
, Sennar defeated the Kingdom of Taqali to the west and made its ruler (styled Woster or Makk) its vassal.
Military Culture
The armies of Sennar relied most on heavy cavalryHeavy cavalry
Heavy cavalry is a class of cavalry whose primary role was to engage in direct combat with enemy forces . Although their equipment differed greatly depending on the region and historical period, they were generally mounted on large powerful horses, and were often equipped with some form of scale,...
: horsemen drawn from the nobility, armed with long broadsword
Broadsword
Broadsword may refer to:*Broadsword , a military sword used by heavy cavalry during the 17th to early 19th centuriesIn more modern times, it has also been used to refer to:...
s as the toe stirrups they used did not permit the use of lance
Lance
A Lance is a pole weapon or spear designed to be used by a mounted warrior. The lance is longer, stout and heavier than an infantry spear, and unsuited for throwing, or for rapid thrusting. Lances did not have tips designed to intentionally break off or bend, unlike many throwing weapons of the...
s. These riders were armoured with chain mail
Chain Mail
"Chain Mail" is a single by Mancunian band James, released in March 1986 by Sire Records, the first after the band defected from Factory Records. The record was released in two different versions, as 7" single and 12" EP, with different artworks by John Carroll and, confusingly, under different...
while the horses were covered in thick quilt
Quilt
A quilt is a type of bed cover, traditionally composed of three layers of fiber: a woven cloth top, a layer of batting or wadding and a woven back, combined using the technique of quilting. “Quilting” refers to the technique of joining at least two fabric layers by stitches or ties...
s and copper headgear. A greater mass of troops were infantry carrying swords and armoured. This permanent standing army, the largest in East Africa
East Africa
East Africa or Eastern Africa is the easterly region of the African continent, variably defined by geography or geopolitics. In the UN scheme of geographic regions, 19 territories constitute Eastern Africa:...
until the 1810s, was garrisoned in castles and forts throughout the sultanate. Reliance on a standing army meant that the professional armies fielded by Sennar were usually smaller, but highly effective against their less organized rivals.
Civil Society
The sultanate was heavily divided along geographic and racial/ethnic lines. The society was divided into six racial groups.There was a sharp division between those who were the heirs of the ancient kingdom of Alodia
Alodia
Alodia or Alwa was the southernmost of the three kingdoms of Christian Nubia; the other two were Nobatia and Makuria to the north.Much about this kingdom is still unknown, despite its thousand year existence and considerable power and geographic size. Due to fewer excavations far less is known...
and the rest of Sennar. The Alodians adopted the mantle of the defeated Abdallah Jamma and came to be known as the Abdallab. In the late 16th century they rose in revolt under Ajib the Great. Ajib routed the Kings of Sennar, first making them his vassals and then seizing almost the entire kingdom in 1606. The Sennar monarchy regrouped under Adlan I
Adlan I
Adlan I was a ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar. He was the son of Ayat, although James Bruce writes he was the son of Unsa I and the brother of Abd al-Qadir, whom he deposed and exiled from Sennar. Adlan was, in turn, deposed by his nephew Badi.During his reign, Sennar was at peace with its...
, defeating Ajib in a pair of decisive battles. Eventually a compromise was reached whereby Ajib and his successors would rule the Sennar province of Dongola
Dongola
Dongola , also spelled Dunqulah, and formerly known as Al 'Urdi, is the capital of the state of Northern in Sudan, on the banks of the Nile. It should not be confused with Old Dongola, an ancient city located 80 km upstream on the opposite bank....
with a great deal of autonomy.
Trade
The capital Sennar, prosperous through trade, hosted representatives from all over the Middle East and Africa. The wealth and power of the sultans had long rested on the control of the economy. All caravans were controlled by the monarch, as was the gold supply that functioned as the state's main currency. In time this power was eroded. Foreign currencies became widely used by merchants breaking the power of the monarch to closely control the economy. The thriving trade created a wealthy class of educated and literate merchants, who read widely about IslamIslam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
and became much concerned about the lack of orthodoxy in the kingdom. The monarchy of Sennar had long been regarded as semi-divine, in keeping with ancient traditions, but this idea ran strongly counter to Islam. Many festivals and rituals also persisted from earlier days, and a number them involved massive consumption of alcohol
Alcohol
In chemistry, an alcohol is an organic compound in which the hydroxy functional group is bound to a carbon atom. In particular, this carbon center should be saturated, having single bonds to three other atoms....
. These traditions were also abandoned.
Decline
Sennar was at its peak at the end of the 16th century, but over the seventeenth it began to decline as the power of the monarchy was eroded. The greatest challenge to the authority of the king was the merchant funded ulemaUlema
Ulama , also spelt ulema, refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several fields of Islamic studies. They are best known as the arbiters of shari‘a law...
who insisted it was rightfully their duty to mete out justice.
In 1762 Badi IV
Badi IV
Badi IV , also known as Badi abu Shilluk, was a ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar.When Emperor Iyasu II of Ethiopia invaded his realm in 1738, the army of Sennar under the leadership of Hamis, a prince of Darfur, inflicted a significant defeat of the invaders at the Battle of the Dindar River.He was...
was overthrown in a coup launched by Abu Likayik of the red Hamaj from the northeast of the country. Abu Likayik installed another member of the royal family as his puppet sultan and ruled as regent. This began long conflict between the Funj sultans attempting to reassert their independence and authority and the Hamaj regents attempting to maintain control of the true power of the state.
These internal divisions greatly weakened the state and in the late 18th century Mek Adlan II, son of Mek Taifara, took power during a turbulent time at which a Turkish presence was being established in the Funj kingdom. The Turkish ruler, Al-Tahir Agha
Al-Tahir Agha
Al-Tahir Agha was a Turkish ruler sent to govern a province of Sudan, Al-Getaina, which was in the Ottoman Empire's domain, in the late 18th century. During his time in Sudan he married Khadeeja, the daughter of Mek Adlan II, the sultan of Sennar. Their union resulted in the birth of Hawa...
, married Khadeeja, daughter of Mek Adlan II. This paved the way for the assimilation of the Funj into the Ottoman Empire.
In 1821, Ismail bin Muhammad Ali the general and son of the nominally Ottoman
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
khedive
Khedive
The term Khedive is a title largely equivalent to the English word viceroy. It was first used, without official recognition, by Muhammad Ali Pasha , the Wāli of Egypt and Sudan, and vassal of the Ottoman Empire...
of Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
, Muhammad Ali
Muhammad Ali of Egypt
Muhammad Ali Pasha al-Mas'ud ibn Agha was a commander in the Ottoman army, who became Wāli, and self-declared Khedive of Egypt and Sudan...
, led an army into Sennar; he encountered no resistance from the last king, whose realm was promptly absorbed into Ottoman Egypt. The region was subsequently absorbed into the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan referred to the manner by which Sudan was administered between 1899 and 1956, when it was a condominium of Egypt and the United Kingdom.-Union with Egypt:...
and the independent Republic of Sudan on that country's independence in 1956.
Rulers of Sennar
Monarchical ordinal
Ordinal numbers or regnal numbers are used to distinguish among persons with the same name who held the same office. Most importantly, they are used to distinguish monarchs...
vary from source to source.
- Amara DunqasAmara DunqasAmara Dunqas was the first ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar . According to James Bruce, he founded the city of Sennar, after the Wad 'Ajib had been defeated by the Funj in a battle near Arbaji moved the feat of government of Wed Ageeb to Herbagi, that he might be more immediately under their own...
1503-1533/4 (AH 940) - Nayil 1533/4 (AH 940)-1550/1 (AH 957)
- Abd al-Qadir I 1550/1 (AH 957)-1557/8 (AH 965)
- Abu Sakikin 1557/8 (AH 965)-1568
- DakinDakin of SennarDakin was a ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar. He was the son of the previous ruler Nayil.- References :...
1568-1585/6 (AH 994) - Dawra 1585/6 (AH 994)-1587/8 (AH 996)
- Tayyib 1587/8 (AH 996)-1591
- Unsa I 1591-1603/4 (AH 1012)
- Abd al-Qadir IIAbd al-Qadir IIAbd al-Qadir II was a ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar . According to James Bruce, he was the son of Unsa I, whom Bruce describes as "a weak and ill-inclined man" While he was ruler of Sennar, Emperor Susenyos of Ethiopia sent to Abd al-Qadir a nagarit, or kettle-drum, richly decorated with gold,...
1603/4 (AH 1012)-1606 - Adlan IAdlan IAdlan I was a ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar. He was the son of Ayat, although James Bruce writes he was the son of Unsa I and the brother of Abd al-Qadir, whom he deposed and exiled from Sennar. Adlan was, in turn, deposed by his nephew Badi.During his reign, Sennar was at peace with its...
1606-1611/2 (AH 1020) - Badi IBadi IBadi I , also known as Badi el Kawam, was a ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar. During his reign, Sennar was at peace with its neighbor, Ethiopia...
1611/2 (AH 1020)-1616/7 (AH 1025) - Rabat IRabat IRabat I was a ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar. According to James Bruce, he was the son of Badi I.He intrigued in Ethiopian politics a number of times. Early in his reign he detained the Coptic bishop Abba Yeshaq, who had passed through Sennar on his way to Ethiopia...
1616/7 (AH 1025)-1644/5 - Badi IIBadi IIBadi II, known as The Bearded , was a ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar. During his reign, the Kingdom of Taqali to the west was defeated and made a vassal state.- References :...
1644/5-1681 - Unsa II 1681-1692
- Badi IIIBadi IIIBadi III, or Badi el Ahmar, was a ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar. James Bruce includes in his account of Ethiopia the translation of a letter the Ethiopian Emperor Tewolfos sent him dated 21 January 1706, wherein he addresses him as "king Badi, son of king Unsa".According to a manuscript history...
1692-1716 - Unsa III 1719-1720
- Nul 1720-1724
- Badi IVBadi IVBadi IV , also known as Badi abu Shilluk, was a ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar.When Emperor Iyasu II of Ethiopia invaded his realm in 1738, the army of Sennar under the leadership of Hamis, a prince of Darfur, inflicted a significant defeat of the invaders at the Battle of the Dindar River.He was...
1724-1762 - NasirNasir of SennarNasir was a ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar. He was the son of Badi IV, the previous ruler.He deposed his father Badi, with the help of the vizer Sheikh Adelan and his brother Abu Kalec the governor of Kordofan. Badi fled to sanctuary in Ethiopia, where Emperor Iyoas I appointed the deposed king...
1762-1769 - Isma'ilIsma'il of SennarIsma'il was the ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar . He was the son of king Badi IV, and brother of his predecessor Nasir....
1768-1776 - Adlan IIAdlan IIAdlan II was the ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar .He defeated the Vizier Rajab of Sennar and Fiki Haji Mohammed Majdub in the Battle of Taras in 1787.- Notes :...
1776-1789 - Awkal 1787-1788
- Tayyib II 1788-1790
- Badi V 1790
- Nawwar 1790-1791
- Badi VI 1791-1798
- Ranfi 1798-1804
- Agban 1804-1805
- Badi VIIBadi VIIBadi VII 1805 - 1821 was the last ruler of the Kingdom of Sennar.Badi offered no resistance to Ismail Pasha, who had led the khedive army of his father up the Nile to his capital at Sennar...
1805-1821
Hamaj regents
- Abu Likayik - 1769-1775/6
- Badi walad Rajab - 1775/6-1780
- Rajab 1780-1786/7
- Nasir 1786/7-1798
- Idris wad Abu Likayik - 1798-1804
- Adlan wad Abu Likayik - 1804-1805