Finnish famine of 1866-1868
Encyclopedia
The Famine of 1866–1868 was the last famine
in Finland
and northern Sweden
, and the last major naturally caused famine in Europe
. In Finland the famine is known as "the great hunger years", or . About 15% of the entire population died; in the hardest-hit areas up to 20%. The total death toll was 270,000 in three years, about 150,000 in excess of normal mortality. The worst-hit areas were Satakunta, Tavastia
, Ostrobothnia
, and North Karelia
.
es and root vegetables rotted in the fields, and conditions for sowing grain
in the autumn were unfavourable. When stored food ran out, thousands took to the roads to beg. The following winter was hard, and spring was late. In Helsinki
, the average temperature in May 1867 was +1.8 °C, about 8 °C below the long-time average and by far the coldest such month in the meteorological record. In many places, lakes and rivers remained frozen until June. After a promisingly warm midsummer, freezing temperatures in early September ravaged crops; as a result, the harvest was about half the average. By the autumn of 1867, people were dying by the thousands.
The government of the Grand Duchy of Finland
was ill-equipped to handle a crisis of such magnitude. There was no money readily available to import food, and the government was slow to recognize the severity of the situation. Finance minister Johan Vilhelm Snellman
, in particular, did not want to borrow, lest Finland's recently introduced currency, the Finnish markka be weakened. When money was finally borrowed from the Rothschild bank of Frankfurt
in late 1867, the crisis was already full blown, and grain prices had risen in Europe. In addition, it was difficult to transport what little aid could be mustered in a country with poor communications. A number of emergency public works
projects were set up, foremost among them the construction of the railway line from Riihimäki to Saint Petersburg
.
At that time, the Finnish economy
was liberalized, which led to increasing living standards, and no similar famines have occurred thereafter. Moreover, programs were launched to increase the diversity of Finnish agriculture, and rapidly improving communications along with a growing industrial economy made a recurrence of such a famine less likely.
The Finnish people in general saw the famine as an act of God
. Few would have expected the crown to be able to do much more, and blame was directed mainly at local officials. No significant working class political movement
had developed yet that could have capitalized politically on the crisis. The urban population was small, and for the people of the countryside, the first priority was to resume normal lives. In short, the famine did not threaten the social order
, but its memory cast a long shadow.
was a prime settlement area for unskilled laborers, as many young workers found employment in factories. In the upper Midwest, there is a region known as the "Finn-Loop" which includes the areas of Northeastern Minnesota, Northern Wisconsin, and the upper Peninsula of Michigan surrounding Lake Superior. Many people found work in mining, farming, forestry, shipping, and other trades commonly seen in Finland. Similar conditions were seen out west in Washington and Oregon and areas of Northern California, and in cities such as Aberdeen, Astoria, and Eureka.
Famine
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including crop failure, overpopulation, or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality. Every continent in the world has...
in Finland
Finland
Finland , officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.Around 5.4 million people reside...
and northern Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
, and the last major naturally caused famine in Europe
Europe
Europe is, by convention, one of the world's seven continents. Comprising the westernmost peninsula of Eurasia, Europe is generally 'divided' from Asia to its east by the watershed divides of the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian and Black Seas, and the waterways connecting...
. In Finland the famine is known as "the great hunger years", or . About 15% of the entire population died; in the hardest-hit areas up to 20%. The total death toll was 270,000 in three years, about 150,000 in excess of normal mortality. The worst-hit areas were Satakunta, Tavastia
Tavastia
Tavastia may refer to:* Tavastia , a historical province of the kingdom of Sweden, located in modern-day Finland* Tavastia Proper, a modern region of Finland* Päijänne Tavastia, another region of Finland...
, Ostrobothnia
Ostrobothnia (region)
Ostrobothnia is a region of Finland. It is located in Western Finland. It borders the regions Central Ostrobothnia, Southern Ostrobothnia, and Satakunta and is one of the four regions making up the historical province of Ostrobothnia....
, and North Karelia
North Karelia
North Karelia is a region in eastern Finland. It borders to the regions of Kainuu, Northern Savonia, Southern Savonia, South Karelia and to Russia.The city of Joensuu is the centre of the North Karelia region.- Municipalities :...
.
Causes
Parts of the country had suffered poor harvests in previous years, most notably in 1862. The summer of 1866 was extremely rainy, and staple crops failed widely: potatoPotato
The potato is a starchy, tuberous crop from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae family . The word potato may refer to the plant itself as well as the edible tuber. In the region of the Andes, there are some other closely related cultivated potato species...
es and root vegetables rotted in the fields, and conditions for sowing grain
GRAIN
GRAIN is a small international non-profit organisation that works to support small farmers and social movements in their struggles for community-controlled and biodiversity-based food systems. Our support takes the form of independent research and analysis, networking at local, regional and...
in the autumn were unfavourable. When stored food ran out, thousands took to the roads to beg. The following winter was hard, and spring was late. In Helsinki
Helsinki
Helsinki is the capital and largest city in Finland. It is in the region of Uusimaa, located in southern Finland, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland, an arm of the Baltic Sea. The population of the city of Helsinki is , making it by far the most populous municipality in Finland. Helsinki is...
, the average temperature in May 1867 was +1.8 °C, about 8 °C below the long-time average and by far the coldest such month in the meteorological record. In many places, lakes and rivers remained frozen until June. After a promisingly warm midsummer, freezing temperatures in early September ravaged crops; as a result, the harvest was about half the average. By the autumn of 1867, people were dying by the thousands.
The government of the Grand Duchy of Finland
Grand Duchy of Finland
The Grand Duchy of Finland was the predecessor state of modern Finland. It existed 1809–1917 as part of the Russian Empire and was ruled by the Russian czar as Grand Prince.- History :...
was ill-equipped to handle a crisis of such magnitude. There was no money readily available to import food, and the government was slow to recognize the severity of the situation. Finance minister Johan Vilhelm Snellman
Johan Vilhelm Snellman
Johan Vilhelm Snellman was an influential Fennoman philosopher and Finnish statesman, ennobled in 1866.Snellman was born in Stockholm, Sweden, as son of Kristian Henrik Snellman, a ship's captain...
, in particular, did not want to borrow, lest Finland's recently introduced currency, the Finnish markka be weakened. When money was finally borrowed from the Rothschild bank of Frankfurt
Frankfurt
Frankfurt am Main , commonly known simply as Frankfurt, is the largest city in the German state of Hesse and the fifth-largest city in Germany, with a 2010 population of 688,249. The urban area had an estimated population of 2,300,000 in 2010...
in late 1867, the crisis was already full blown, and grain prices had risen in Europe. In addition, it was difficult to transport what little aid could be mustered in a country with poor communications. A number of emergency public works
Public works
Public works are a broad category of projects, financed and constructed by the government, for recreational, employment, and health and safety uses in the greater community...
projects were set up, foremost among them the construction of the railway line from Riihimäki to Saint Petersburg
Riihimäki-Saint Petersburg railroad
The Riihimäki–Saint Petersburg Railway is a long segment of the Helsinki–Saint Petersburg connection, which is divided between Saint Petersburg and Leningrad Oblast in Russia and the province of Southern Finland in Finland.-History:...
.
Aftermath
The weather returned to normal in 1868, and that year's harvest was somewhat better than average, yet, contagious diseases that had spread in the previous year took many additional lives.At that time, the Finnish economy
Economy of Finland
Finland has a highly industrialised, mixed economy with a per capita output equal to that of other western economies such as France, Germany, Sweden or the United Kingdom. The largest sector of the economy is services at 65.7 percent, followed by manufacturing and refining at 31.4 percent. Primary...
was liberalized, which led to increasing living standards, and no similar famines have occurred thereafter. Moreover, programs were launched to increase the diversity of Finnish agriculture, and rapidly improving communications along with a growing industrial economy made a recurrence of such a famine less likely.
The Finnish people in general saw the famine as an act of God
Act of God
Act of God is a legal term for events outside of human control, such as sudden floods or other natural disasters, for which no one can be held responsible.- Contract law :...
. Few would have expected the crown to be able to do much more, and blame was directed mainly at local officials. No significant working class political movement
Political movement
A political movement is a social movement in the area of politics. A political movement may be organized around a single issue or set of issues, or around a set of shared concerns of a social group...
had developed yet that could have capitalized politically on the crisis. The urban population was small, and for the people of the countryside, the first priority was to resume normal lives. In short, the famine did not threaten the social order
Social order
Social order is a concept used in sociology, history and other social sciences. It refers to a set of linked social structures, social institutions and social practices which conserve, maintain and enforce "normal" ways of relating and behaving....
, but its memory cast a long shadow.
Emigration
During this time period, thousands of Finns migrated to the United States to escape the crushing poverty. A majority of them settled in three areas. MassachusettsMassachusetts
The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America. It is bordered by Rhode Island and Connecticut to the south, New York to the west, and Vermont and New Hampshire to the north; at its east lies the Atlantic Ocean. As of the 2010...
was a prime settlement area for unskilled laborers, as many young workers found employment in factories. In the upper Midwest, there is a region known as the "Finn-Loop" which includes the areas of Northeastern Minnesota, Northern Wisconsin, and the upper Peninsula of Michigan surrounding Lake Superior. Many people found work in mining, farming, forestry, shipping, and other trades commonly seen in Finland. Similar conditions were seen out west in Washington and Oregon and areas of Northern California, and in cities such as Aberdeen, Astoria, and Eureka.