Exceptionalism
Encyclopedia
Exceptionalism is the perception that a country, society, institution, movement, or time period is "exceptional" (i.e., unusual or extraordinary) in some way and thus does not need to conform to normal rules or general principles. Used in this sense, the term reflects a belief formed by lived experience, ideology, perceptual frame
s, or perspectives influenced by knowledge (or lack thereof) of historical
or comparative circumstances.
(1744-1803) and Johann Gottlieb Fichte
(1762-1814), dwelt on the theme of uniqueness in the late 18th century. They de-emphasized the political state and instead emphasized the uniqueness of the Volk, comprising the whole people, their languages and traditions. Each nation, considered as a cultural entity with its own distinctive history, possessed a "national spirit", or "soul of the people" (in German: Volksgeist). This idea had a strong influence in the growth of nationalism in 19th-century European lands — especially ones ruled by élite
s from somewhere else.
Many countries of all kinds have claimed exceptionality, including the modern United States
, Britain
, Imperial Japan, Iran
, Spain
, the USSR, France
and Germany
. Historians have added many other cases, including historic empires such as ancient Rome
, the Ottoman Empire
and China
, along with a wide range of minor kingdoms in history. In each case, proponents have presented a basis as to why the country is exceptional compared to other countries, drawing upon circumstance, cultural background and mythos
, and self-perceived national aims.
Western Europe
or the ability of Sweden
to generate small-business growth while maintaining high levels of taxation.
Exceptionalism can represent an error analogous to historicism
in assuming that only peculiarities are relevant to analysis, while overlooking meaningful comparisons. "[W]hat is seemingly exceptional in one country may be found in other countries." As indigenous peoples explore their respective cultural heritages, their seeking to be separately classified or newly-understood may be a form of exceptionalism.
In ideologically-driven debates, a group may assert exceptionalism, with or without the term, in order to exaggerate the appearance of difference, perhaps to create an atmosphere permissive of a wider latitude of action, and to avoid recognition of similarities that would reduce perceived justifications. If unwarranted, this represents an example of special pleading
, a form of spurious argumentation that ignores relevant bases for meaningful comparison.
Groups likewise may be accused of exceptionalism, perhaps for avoiding normal terms of analysis. The term may be a marker for an implication that a point of view is widely misunderstood, such as the notion that Islam
ic jihad
is misunderstood.
The term "exceptionalism" can imply criticism of a tendency to remain separate from others. For example, the reluctance of the United States
government to join various international treaties is sometimes called "exceptionalist", as is an assertion that a person or group refuses to acknowledge, and perhaps communally participate in, a widely-accepted principle or practice.
In editorial language, the term "exceptionalism" may be a marker for "the extent to which a region or group is justifiably or factually distinct."
" implies that AIDS is a contagious disease that is or should be treated differently from other contagions or entails benefits not available to those suffering from other diseases.
Genetic exceptionalism
is a policy program that medicalizes genetic information. Like the exceptionalism surrounding HIV testing, genetic exceptionalism is based on the belief that the average person needs a licensed health professional to guide and support him through the discovery of information with health implications, even if this information is common knowledge, such as that he has red hair, which is associated with a higher risk of sunburns and skin cancer. In countries with strong genetic exceptionalism laws, the individual must have permission from a physician to obtain information about his genes.
Abortion exceptionalism
is the decision to treat voluntary abortion
s differently from other medical procedures.
Framing (social sciences)
A frame in social theory consists of a schema of interpretation — that is, a collection of anecdotes and stereotypes—that individuals rely on to understand and respond to events. In simpler terms, people build a series of mental filters through biological and cultural influences. They use these...
s, or perspectives influenced by knowledge (or lack thereof) of historical
History
History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians...
or comparative circumstances.
History
The German romantic philosopher-historians, especially Johann Gottfried HerderJohann Gottfried Herder
Johann Gottfried von Herder was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic. He is associated with the periods of Enlightenment, Sturm und Drang, and Weimar Classicism.-Biography:...
(1744-1803) and Johann Gottlieb Fichte
Johann Gottlieb Fichte
Johann Gottlieb Fichte was a German philosopher. He was one of the founding figures of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, a movement that developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Kant...
(1762-1814), dwelt on the theme of uniqueness in the late 18th century. They de-emphasized the political state and instead emphasized the uniqueness of the Volk, comprising the whole people, their languages and traditions. Each nation, considered as a cultural entity with its own distinctive history, possessed a "national spirit", or "soul of the people" (in German: Volksgeist). This idea had a strong influence in the growth of nationalism in 19th-century European lands — especially ones ruled by élite
Elite
Elite refers to an exceptional or privileged group that wields considerable power within its sphere of influence...
s from somewhere else.
Many countries of all kinds have claimed exceptionality, including the modern United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
, Britain
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelandIn the United Kingdom and Dependencies, other languages have been officially recognised as legitimate autochthonous languages under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages...
, Imperial Japan, Iran
Iran
Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran , is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran" has been in use natively since the Sassanian era and came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia...
, Spain
Spain
Spain , officially the Kingdom of Spain languages]] under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. In each of these, Spain's official name is as follows:;;;;;;), is a country and member state of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula...
, the USSR, France
France
The French Republic , The French Republic , The French Republic , (commonly known as France , is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France...
and Germany
Germany
Germany , officially the Federal Republic of Germany , is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate...
. Historians have added many other cases, including historic empires such as ancient Rome
Ancient Rome
Ancient Rome was a thriving civilization that grew on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Sea and centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to one of the largest empires in the ancient world....
, the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman EmpireIt was usually referred to as the "Ottoman Empire", the "Turkish Empire", the "Ottoman Caliphate" or more commonly "Turkey" by its contemporaries...
and China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
, along with a wide range of minor kingdoms in history. In each case, proponents have presented a basis as to why the country is exceptional compared to other countries, drawing upon circumstance, cultural background and mythos
Mythology
The term mythology can refer either to the study of myths, or to a body or collection of myths. As examples, comparative mythology is the study of connections between myths from different cultures, whereas Greek mythology is the body of myths from ancient Greece...
, and self-perceived national aims.
Separateness
Commentators often use the term "exceptionalism" to describe surprising developments in economic progress, such as the economic growth of post-World War IIWorld War II
World War II, or the Second World War , was a global conflict lasting from 1939 to 1945, involving most of the world's nations—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing military alliances: the Allies and the Axis...
Western Europe
Western Europe
Western Europe is a loose term for the collection of countries in the western most region of the European continents, though this definition is context-dependent and carries cultural and political connotations. One definition describes Western Europe as a geographic entity—the region lying in the...
or the ability of Sweden
Sweden
Sweden , officially the Kingdom of Sweden , is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Öresund....
to generate small-business growth while maintaining high levels of taxation.
Exceptionalism can represent an error analogous to historicism
Historicism
Historicism is a mode of thinking that assigns a central and basic significance to a specific context, such as historical period, geographical place and local culture. As such it is in contrast to individualist theories of knowledges such as empiricism and rationalism, which neglect the role of...
in assuming that only peculiarities are relevant to analysis, while overlooking meaningful comparisons. "[W]hat is seemingly exceptional in one country may be found in other countries." As indigenous peoples explore their respective cultural heritages, their seeking to be separately classified or newly-understood may be a form of exceptionalism.
In ideologically-driven debates, a group may assert exceptionalism, with or without the term, in order to exaggerate the appearance of difference, perhaps to create an atmosphere permissive of a wider latitude of action, and to avoid recognition of similarities that would reduce perceived justifications. If unwarranted, this represents an example of special pleading
Special pleading
Special pleading is a form of spurious argumentation where a position in a dispute introduces favorable details or excludes unfavorable details by alleging a need to apply additional considerations without proper criticism of these considerations themselves. Essentially, this involves someone...
, a form of spurious argumentation that ignores relevant bases for meaningful comparison.
Groups likewise may be accused of exceptionalism, perhaps for avoiding normal terms of analysis. The term may be a marker for an implication that a point of view is widely misunderstood, such as the notion that Islam
Islam
Islam . The most common are and . : Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from ~~. The second vowel ranges from ~~~...
ic jihad
Jihad
Jihad , an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. In Arabic, the word jihād translates as a noun meaning "struggle". Jihad appears 41 times in the Quran and frequently in the idiomatic expression "striving in the way of God ". A person engaged in jihad is called a mujahid; the plural is...
is misunderstood.
The term "exceptionalism" can imply criticism of a tendency to remain separate from others. For example, the reluctance of the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
government to join various international treaties is sometimes called "exceptionalist", as is an assertion that a person or group refuses to acknowledge, and perhaps communally participate in, a widely-accepted principle or practice.
In editorial language, the term "exceptionalism" may be a marker for "the extent to which a region or group is justifiably or factually distinct."
Medical exceptionalism
Use of the term "HIV exceptionalismHIV exceptionalism
HIV exceptionalism is the term given to the trend to treat AIDS differently from other diseases, including other sexually transmitted, infectious, lethal diseases in law and policy....
" implies that AIDS is a contagious disease that is or should be treated differently from other contagions or entails benefits not available to those suffering from other diseases.
Genetic exceptionalism
Genetic exceptionalism
Genetic exceptionalism is the belief that genetic information is special and must therefore be treated differently from other types of medical information....
is a policy program that medicalizes genetic information. Like the exceptionalism surrounding HIV testing, genetic exceptionalism is based on the belief that the average person needs a licensed health professional to guide and support him through the discovery of information with health implications, even if this information is common knowledge, such as that he has red hair, which is associated with a higher risk of sunburns and skin cancer. In countries with strong genetic exceptionalism laws, the individual must have permission from a physician to obtain information about his genes.
Abortion exceptionalism
Abortion exceptionalism
Abortion exceptionalism is the idea that voluntary abortions are special, and therefore need to be treated differently in laws and policies compared to other medical procedures...
is the decision to treat voluntary abortion
Abortion
Abortion is defined as the termination of pregnancy by the removal or expulsion from the uterus of a fetus or embryo prior to viability. An abortion can occur spontaneously, in which case it is usually called a miscarriage, or it can be purposely induced...
s differently from other medical procedures.
See also
- GrandiosityGrandiosityGrandiosity is chiefly associated with narcissistic personality disorder, but also commonly features in manic or hypomanic episodes of bipolar disorder....
- Human exceptionalismHuman exceptionalismHuman exceptionalism refers to a belief that human beings have special status in nature based on their unique capacities. This belief is the grounding for some naturalistic concepts of human rights.-Apologetics:...
- EgocentrismEgocentrismEgocentrism is a personality trait which has the characteristic of regarding oneself and one's own opinions or interests as most important or valid...
- Chosen peopleChosen peopleThroughout history and even today various groups of people have considered themselves as chosen by a deity for some purpose such as to act as the deity's agent on earth. In monotheistic faiths, like Abrahamic religions, references to God are used in constructs such as "God's Chosen People"...
- American exceptionalismAmerican exceptionalismAmerican exceptionalism refers to the theory that the United States is qualitatively different from other countries. In this view, America's exceptionalism stems from its emergence from a revolution, becoming "the first new nation," and developing a uniquely American ideology, based on liberty,...
(United States of America) - Arab exceptionalism
- European exceptionalism
- SonderwegSonderwegSonderweg is a controversial theory in German historiography that considers the German-speaking lands, or the country Germany, to have followed a unique course from aristocracy into democracy, distinct from other European countries...
- NihonjinronNihonjinronThe term literally means theories/discussions about the Japanese. The term refers to a genre of texts that focuses on issues of Japanese national and cultural identity. The literature is vast, ranging over such varied fields as sociology, psychology, history, linguistics, philosophy, and even...
- God's Own CountryGod's Own CountryGod’s Own Country, often abbreviated to Godzone or less often Godzown, is a phrase that has been used for more than 100 years by New Zealanders to describe their homeland. It has subsequently been adopted by some other countries, notably Australia, but this has declined as the phrase has become...
(New Zealand) - Third RomeThird RomeThe term Third Rome describes the idea that some European city, state, or country is the successor to the legacy of the Roman Empire and its successor state, the Byzantine Empire ....
(Russia) - Mission civilisatrice de la FranceCivilizing missionis a rationale for intervention or colonisation, proposing to contribute to the spread of civilization, mostly amounting to the Westernization of indigenous peoples....
- Cultural exceptionCultural exceptionCultural exception is a concept introduced by France in General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade negotiations in 1993...