Dennis MacDonald
Encyclopedia
Dennis Ronald MacDonald is a professor of theology at the Claremont School of Theology
in California
. MacDonald is known for his controversial theories wherein the Homeric Epics
are the foundation of various Christian
works including the Gospel of Mark
and the Acts of the Apostles
. If his theories are correct, and the earliest books of the New Testament
were responses to the Homeric Epics, then "nearly everything written on [the] early Christian narrative is flawed." According to him, modern biblical scholarship has failed to recognize the impact of Homeric Poetry.
, a Master of Divinity
from McCormick Theological Seminary
, and a Ph.D from Harvard University
. He taught Theology and Biblical Studies at the Iliff School of Theology
in Denver, Colorado
from 1980 to 1998. Since 1998 to present he has been the John Wesley Professor of New Testament at the Claremont School of Theology and Professor of Religion at the Claremont Graduate University
. He also is the director of the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity at Claremont.
was a Christian retelling of Homer's Iliad
. In it he argued that one could detect trends that showed parallels between the Homeric epic and the Acts of Andrew. He argued that the Acts of Andrew is better understood in light of the Odyssey
. That the order of events in the Acts follows those found in the Acts of Andrew, that certain events in the Acts are better understood when understood in context of the Homeric epics, and that the Homeric texts commonly were available during the first century AD. In subsequent works, MacDonald expanded his hypothesis to include the Acts of the Apostles
and the Gospel of Mark
as being Christian variations of the Homeric epics.
In Christianizing Homer, MacDonald lays down his principles of literary mimesis
, his methodology for comparing ancient texts. There are six aspects he examines 1) accessibility, 2) analogy, 3) density, 4) order, 5) distinctive traits, and 6) interpretability. According to his hypothesis, not only was Homer readily available to the authors of the New Testament, but the Homeric epics would have been the basic texts upon which the New Testament authors learned to write Greek. MacDonald also argues that the number of common traits, the order in which they occur, and the distinctiveness thereof between the Homeric Texts and early Christian documents help to show that the New Testament writers were using Homeric models when writing various books.
In his earliest reviews, MacDonald only applied his hypothesis to works such as Tobit
and the Acts of Peter
. In later works, he posits the Acts of the Apostles, the Gospel of Mark, and Gospel of Luke are the "merging [of] two great cultural classics, in order 'to depict Jesus as more compassionate, powerful, noble, and enured to suffering than Odysseus.'"
The book begins by examining the role that the Homeric Epics played in antiquity—namely that anybody who was considered educated at the time learned to read and write, and they did so by studying the Odyssey and Iliad. Students were expected, not only to understand the epics, but be able to rewrite the stories in their own words. Rewriting the Homeric Epics was commonplace and accepted in Biblical times.
In using the Homeric Epics, the ancient writers were not trying to deceive their readers; in fact MacDonald believes the ancient readers understood the juxtapositions of Jesus with Odysseus. “Mark’s purpose”, he argues, “in creating so many stories about Jesus was to demonstrate how superior [Jesus] was to Greek heroes. Few readers of Mark fail to see how he portrays Jesus as superior to Jewish worthies… He does the same for Greek heroes.”
. New Testament scholar Karl Olav Sandnes, author of the monograph The Challenge of Homer: School, Pagan Poets, and Early Christianity critiqued MacDonald in an article of the Journal for Biblical Literature. Sandnes notes the vague nature of alleged parallels as the "Achilles' heel" of the "slippery" project. He has also questioned the nature of the alleged paralleled motifs, seeing MacDonald's interpretations of common motives. He states, "His [MacDonald's] reading is fascinating and contributes to a reader-orientated exegesis. But he fails to demonstrate authorial intention while he, in fact, neglects the OT intertextuality that is broadcast in this literature." (732)
Claremont School of Theology
Claremont School of Theology is a graduate school located in Claremont, California, offering Master of Art, Masters of Divinity, Doctorate of Ministry and Ph.D...
in California
California
California is a state located on the West Coast of the United States. It is by far the most populous U.S. state, and the third-largest by land area...
. MacDonald is known for his controversial theories wherein the Homeric Epics
Homer
In the Western classical tradition Homer , is the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and is revered as the greatest ancient Greek epic poet. These epics lie at the beginning of the Western canon of literature, and have had an enormous influence on the history of literature.When he lived is...
are the foundation of various Christian
Christian
A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recorded in the Canonical gospels and the letters of the New Testament...
works including the Gospel of Mark
Gospel of Mark
The Gospel According to Mark , commonly shortened to the Gospel of Mark or simply Mark, is the second book of the New Testament. This canonical account of the life of Jesus of Nazareth is one of the three synoptic gospels. It was thought to be an epitome, which accounts for its place as the second...
and the Acts of the Apostles
Acts of the Apostles
The Acts of the Apostles , usually referred to simply as Acts, is the fifth book of the New Testament; Acts outlines the history of the Apostolic Age...
. If his theories are correct, and the earliest books of the New Testament
New Testament
The New Testament is the second major division of the Christian biblical canon, the first such division being the much longer Old Testament....
were responses to the Homeric Epics, then "nearly everything written on [the] early Christian narrative is flawed." According to him, modern biblical scholarship has failed to recognize the impact of Homeric Poetry.
Background
MacDonald earned his undergraduate degree from Bob Jones UniversityBob Jones University
Bob Jones University is a private, for-profit, non-denominational Protestant university in Greenville, South Carolina.The university was founded in 1927 by Bob Jones, Sr. , an evangelist and contemporary of Billy Sunday...
, a Master of Divinity
Master of Divinity
In the academic study of theology, the Master of Divinity is the first professional degree of the pastoral profession in North America...
from McCormick Theological Seminary
McCormick Theological Seminary
McCormick Theological Seminary is one of eleven schools of theology of the Presbyterian Church . It shares a campus with the Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago, bordering the campus of the University of Chicago in Chicago, Illinois...
, and a Ph.D from Harvard University
Harvard University
Harvard University is a private Ivy League university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States, established in 1636 by the Massachusetts legislature. Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and the first corporation chartered in the country...
. He taught Theology and Biblical Studies at the Iliff School of Theology
Iliff School of Theology
Iliff School of Theology is a graduate theological school adjoining the University of Denver in Denver, Colorado.An average of 300-350 students attend the school each year in the following degree programs:* Master of Divinity...
in Denver, Colorado
Colorado
Colorado is a U.S. state that encompasses much of the Rocky Mountains as well as the northeastern portion of the Colorado Plateau and the western edge of the Great Plains...
from 1980 to 1998. Since 1998 to present he has been the John Wesley Professor of New Testament at the Claremont School of Theology and Professor of Religion at the Claremont Graduate University
Claremont Graduate University
Claremont Graduate University is a private, all-graduate research university located in Claremont, California, a city east of downtown Los Angeles...
. He also is the director of the Institute for Antiquity and Christianity at Claremont.
Christianizing Homer
In one of MacDonald's first books, Christianizing Homer: The Odyssey, Plato, and the Acts of Andrew, he posited the theory that the non-canonical Acts of AndrewActs of Andrew
The Acts of Andrew , is the earliest testimony of the acts and miracles of the Apostle Andrew. The surviving version is alluded to in a 3rd century work, the Coptic Manichaean Psalter, providing a terminus ante quem, according to its editors, M.R. James and Jean-Marc Prieur in The Anchor Bible...
was a Christian retelling of Homer's Iliad
Iliad
The Iliad is an epic poem in dactylic hexameters, traditionally attributed to Homer. Set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy by a coalition of Greek states, it tells of the battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles...
. In it he argued that one could detect trends that showed parallels between the Homeric epic and the Acts of Andrew. He argued that the Acts of Andrew is better understood in light of the Odyssey
Odyssey
The Odyssey is one of two major ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is, in part, a sequel to the Iliad, the other work ascribed to Homer. The poem is fundamental to the modern Western canon, and is the second—the Iliad being the first—extant work of Western literature...
. That the order of events in the Acts follows those found in the Acts of Andrew, that certain events in the Acts are better understood when understood in context of the Homeric epics, and that the Homeric texts commonly were available during the first century AD. In subsequent works, MacDonald expanded his hypothesis to include the Acts of the Apostles
Acts of the Apostles
The Acts of the Apostles , usually referred to simply as Acts, is the fifth book of the New Testament; Acts outlines the history of the Apostolic Age...
and the Gospel of Mark
Gospel of Mark
The Gospel According to Mark , commonly shortened to the Gospel of Mark or simply Mark, is the second book of the New Testament. This canonical account of the life of Jesus of Nazareth is one of the three synoptic gospels. It was thought to be an epitome, which accounts for its place as the second...
as being Christian variations of the Homeric epics.
In Christianizing Homer, MacDonald lays down his principles of literary mimesis
Mimesis
Mimesis , from μιμεῖσθαι , "to imitate," from μῖμος , "imitator, actor") is a critical and philosophical term that carries a wide range of meanings, which include imitation, representation, mimicry, imitatio, receptivity, nonsensuous similarity, the act of resembling, the act of expression, and the...
, his methodology for comparing ancient texts. There are six aspects he examines 1) accessibility, 2) analogy, 3) density, 4) order, 5) distinctive traits, and 6) interpretability. According to his hypothesis, not only was Homer readily available to the authors of the New Testament, but the Homeric epics would have been the basic texts upon which the New Testament authors learned to write Greek. MacDonald also argues that the number of common traits, the order in which they occur, and the distinctiveness thereof between the Homeric Texts and early Christian documents help to show that the New Testament writers were using Homeric models when writing various books.
In his earliest reviews, MacDonald only applied his hypothesis to works such as Tobit
Tobit
Tobit may refer to* Book of Tobit, a book of scripture that is part of the Catholic and Orthodox biblical canon* Tobit model, an econometric model for censored endogenous variables proposed by James Tobin...
and the Acts of Peter
Acts of Peter
The Acts of Peter is one of the earliest of the apocryphal Acts of the Apostles. The majority of the text has survived only in the Latin translation of the Vercelli manuscript. It is mainly notable for a description of a miracle contest between Saint Peter and Simon Magus, and as the first record...
. In later works, he posits the Acts of the Apostles, the Gospel of Mark, and Gospel of Luke are the "merging [of] two great cultural classics, in order 'to depict Jesus as more compassionate, powerful, noble, and enured to suffering than Odysseus.'"
Homeric epics and the Gospel of Mark
MacDonald's seminal work, however, is The Homeric Epics and the Gospel of Mark. According to MacDonald, the Gospel of Mark is "a deliberate and conscious anti-epic, an inversion of the Greek 'Bible' of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey, which in a sense updates and Judaizes the outdated heroic values presented by Homer, in the figure of a new hero."The book begins by examining the role that the Homeric Epics played in antiquity—namely that anybody who was considered educated at the time learned to read and write, and they did so by studying the Odyssey and Iliad. Students were expected, not only to understand the epics, but be able to rewrite the stories in their own words. Rewriting the Homeric Epics was commonplace and accepted in Biblical times.
In using the Homeric Epics, the ancient writers were not trying to deceive their readers; in fact MacDonald believes the ancient readers understood the juxtapositions of Jesus with Odysseus. “Mark’s purpose”, he argues, “in creating so many stories about Jesus was to demonstrate how superior [Jesus] was to Greek heroes. Few readers of Mark fail to see how he portrays Jesus as superior to Jewish worthies… He does the same for Greek heroes.”
Reception
MacDonald's work regarding the New Testament writings and Homeric epics has not attained mainstream support in New Testament studies and is contrary to modern form criticismForm criticism
Form criticism is a method of biblical criticism that classifies units of scripture by literary pattern and that attempts to trace each type to its period of oral transmission. Form criticism seeks to determine a unit's original form and the historical context of the literary tradition. Hermann...
. New Testament scholar Karl Olav Sandnes, author of the monograph The Challenge of Homer: School, Pagan Poets, and Early Christianity critiqued MacDonald in an article of the Journal for Biblical Literature. Sandnes notes the vague nature of alleged parallels as the "Achilles' heel" of the "slippery" project. He has also questioned the nature of the alleged paralleled motifs, seeing MacDonald's interpretations of common motives. He states, "His [MacDonald's] reading is fascinating and contributes to a reader-orientated exegesis. But he fails to demonstrate authorial intention while he, in fact, neglects the OT intertextuality that is broadcast in this literature." (732)
Major publications
- Dennis MacDonald, Acts Of Andrew: Early Christian Apocrypha, Polebridge Press, 2005. ISBN 0944344550
- Dennis MacDonald, Christianizing Homer: The Odyssey , Plato, and the Acts of Andrew, Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 9780195087222
- Dennis MacDonald (ed), Mimesis and Intertextuality in Antiquity and Christianity, Trinity Press International, 2001. ISBN 1563383357
- Dennis MacDonald, Does the New Testament Imitate Homer? Four Cases from the Acts of the Apostles, 2003. ISBN 9780300097702
- Dennis MacDonald, The Homeric Epics and the Gospel of Mark, Yale University Press, 2000. ISBN 0300080123
- Dennis MacDonald, The Intertextuality of the Epistles Explorations of Theory and Practice, 2006. ISBN 9781905048625
- Dennis MacDonald, The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon, Westminster and John Knox Press, 1983. ISBN 0664244645
Further reading
- Karl Olav Sandnes, "Imitatio Homeri? An Appraisal of Dennis R. MacDonald's "Mimesis Criticism"", Journal of Biblical Literature 1124/4 (2005) 715–732.
- Stan Harstine, review of Dennis R. Macdonald, Does the New Testament Imitate Homer?: Four Cases from the Acts of the Apostles, Review of Biblical Literature (2005).http://www.bookreviews.org/pdf/4363_4374.pdf