Controversies within libertarianism
Encyclopedia
Libertarianism is the political philosophy that holds individual liberty
as the organizing principle of society. Libertarianism includes diverse beliefs, all advocating minimization of the state
and sharing the goal of maximizing individual liberty and political freedom. However, there are many disagreements among proponents of the libertarian ideology.
at some point during pregnancy and therefore should be outlawed at that point. The Libertarian Party of the U.S.
platform supports keeping abortion legal. Groups like the Association of Libertarian Feminists, Capitalism Magazine, and Pro-Choice Libertarians support keeping the government out of the issue. Libertarians For Life
argues that zygotes and fetuses should have the same rights as children and calls for outlawing abortion.
, also known as the death penalty. Those opposing it see it as an excessive abuse of state power which is by its very nature irreversible, as well as being in conflict with the Bill of Rights' ban on "cruel and unusual punishment." Those who support it do so on self-defense
or retributive justice
grounds.
and free trade
tend to call themselves capitalists or free market
eers. Libertarian models of socialism
oppose capitalism and have various views on freedom of trade and property rights. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
says that "left-libertarianism
" is a variation on libertarianism which "differs on unappropriated natural resources (land, air, water, etc.)."
interchangeably with libertarianism. However, major historical and connotational differences exist over the major terms. Generally, libertarianism means a radicalized
form of liberalism. Difficulties may, however, sometimes prevail in terminology when dealing with other libertarian schools of thought.
defined consequentialist libertarianism
as a philosophy that advocates "the least intrusive government consistent with the maximum freedom for each individual as long as he does not interfere with individuals pursuing their own freedom." Where rights-theorist libertarians
oppose all intrusion by government, if they support the existence of a state at all, consequentialists libertarians accept limited government interventions that they consider needed to maximize liberty. Another view, contractarian libertarianism, holds that any legitimate authority of government derives not from the consent of the governed
, but from contract or mutual agreement. Robert Nozick holds a variation on this view, as does Jan Narveson
, economist James M. Buchanan
, Canadian philosopher David Gauthier
and Hungarian-French philosopher Anthony de Jasay
.
and libertarian conservatives argue that intervention is not unethical when a foreign government is abusing the rights of its citizens, but whether a nation should intervene depends on its own self-interest.
it.
theorists justify property rights in ideas (and other intangibles) just like they do property rights in physical goods, saying she who made it owns it; other libertarian natural rights theorists, especially since Kinsella, have held that only physical material can be owned, and that ownership of "intellectual property
" (IP) amount to an illegitimate claim of ownership over that which enters another's mind, that which cannot be removed or controlled without violation of the non-aggression axiom. Pro-IP libertarians of the utilitarian tradition say that IP maximizes innovation, while anti-IP libertarians of the selfsame persuasion say that it causes shortages of innovation. This latter view holds that IP is a euphemism for intellectual protectionism and should be abolished altogether.
, gay
, bisexual
, and transgender
/transsexual
(LGBT
) adults have a right to their own lifestyle or sexual preference, provided that such expression does not trample on the same freedom of other people to choose their own sexual preference or voluntary association
s. They support eliminating any role for government in marriage and propose all marriage contracts between two or more adults of any sex be accepted as legal contracts.
and objectivists) believe that environmental damage is a result of state ownership and mismanagement of natural resources
and believe that private ownership of all natural resources will result in a better environment, as a private owner of property will have more incentive to ensure the longer term value of the property. Others, such as geolibertarians
, believe that such resources (especially land) cannot be considered allodial property.
, interracial marriage
ban
s, and laws restricting women's rights
; they likewise oppose state-enforced affirmative action
, hate crime
laws and anti-discrimination laws. They would not use the state to prevent voluntary affirmative action or voluntary discrimination. Most believe that the drive for profit in the marketplace will diminish or eliminate the effects of racism, which they tend to consider to be inherently collectivist. This causes a degree of dissonance among libertarians in federal systems such as in the U.S., where there is debate among libertarians about whether the federal government has the right to coerce states to change their democratically created laws.
includes opposing taxation. They would fund all services through contributions, user fees
and lotteries. Some proponents of limited government support low taxes, arguing that a society with no taxation would have difficulty providing public good
s such as crime prevention
. Geolibertarians support a land value tax
.
issues and non-interventionism
. They may choose to vote for candidates of other parties depending on the individual and the issues they promote.
Liberty
Liberty is a moral and political principle, or Right, that identifies the condition in which human beings are able to govern themselves, to behave according to their own free will, and take responsibility for their actions...
as the organizing principle of society. Libertarianism includes diverse beliefs, all advocating minimization of the state
State (polity)
A state is an organized political community, living under a government. States may be sovereign and may enjoy a monopoly on the legal initiation of force and are not dependent on, or subject to any other power or state. Many states are federated states which participate in a federal union...
and sharing the goal of maximizing individual liberty and political freedom. However, there are many disagreements among proponents of the libertarian ideology.
Abortion
Most libertarians support women's rights to choose abortion, though some argue abortion becomes homicideHomicide
Homicide refers to the act of a human killing another human. Murder, for example, is a type of homicide. It can also describe a person who has committed such an act, though this use is rare in modern English...
at some point during pregnancy and therefore should be outlawed at that point. The Libertarian Party of the U.S.
Libertarian Party (United States)
The Libertarian Party is the third largest and fastest growing political party in the United States. The political platform of the Libertarian Party reflects its brand of libertarianism, favoring minimally regulated, laissez-faire markets, strong civil liberties, minimally regulated migration...
platform supports keeping abortion legal. Groups like the Association of Libertarian Feminists, Capitalism Magazine, and Pro-Choice Libertarians support keeping the government out of the issue. Libertarians For Life
Libertarians for Life
Libertarians For Life is a nonsectarian group expressing an opposition to abortion within the context of libertarianism. Based in Wheaton, Maryland, Libertarians For Life believes abortion is not a right, but "a wrong under justice".- Literature :...
argues that zygotes and fetuses should have the same rights as children and calls for outlawing abortion.
Capital punishment
Libertarians are divided on capital punishmentCapital punishment
Capital punishment, the death penalty, or execution is the sentence of death upon a person by the state as a punishment for an offence. Crimes that can result in a death penalty are known as capital crimes or capital offences. The term capital originates from the Latin capitalis, literally...
, also known as the death penalty. Those opposing it see it as an excessive abuse of state power which is by its very nature irreversible, as well as being in conflict with the Bill of Rights' ban on "cruel and unusual punishment." Those who support it do so on self-defense
Self-defense
Self-defense, self-defence or private defense is a countermeasure that involves defending oneself, one's property or the well-being of another from physical harm. The use of the right of self-defense as a legal justification for the use of force in times of danger is available in many...
or retributive justice
Retributive justice
Retributive justice is a theory of justice that considers that punishment, if proportionate, is a morally acceptable response to crime, with an eye to the satisfaction and psychological benefits it can bestow to the aggrieved party, its intimates and society....
grounds.
Capitalism
Libertarians who support property rights, deregulationDeregulation
Deregulation is the removal or simplification of government rules and regulations that constrain the operation of market forces.Deregulation is the removal or simplification of government rules and regulations that constrain the operation of market forces.Deregulation is the removal or...
and free trade
Free trade
Under a free trade policy, prices emerge from supply and demand, and are the sole determinant of resource allocation. 'Free' trade differs from other forms of trade policy where the allocation of goods and services among trading countries are determined by price strategies that may differ from...
tend to call themselves capitalists or free market
Free market
A free market is a competitive market where prices are determined by supply and demand. However, the term is also commonly used for markets in which economic intervention and regulation by the state is limited to tax collection, and enforcement of private ownership and contracts...
eers. Libertarian models of socialism
Libertarian socialism
Libertarian socialism is a group of political philosophies that promote a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic, stateless society without private property in the means of production...
oppose capitalism and have various views on freedom of trade and property rights. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy is a freely-accessible online encyclopedia of philosophy maintained by Stanford University. Each entry is written and maintained by an expert in the field, including professors from over 65 academic institutions worldwide...
says that "left-libertarianism
Left-libertarianism
Left-libertarianism names several related but distinct approaches to politics, society, culture, and political and social theory, which stress equally both individual freedom and social justice.-Schools of thought:...
" is a variation on libertarianism which "differs on unappropriated natural resources (land, air, water, etc.)."
Classical liberalism and libertarianism
Many libertarians generally use classical liberalismClassical liberalism
Classical liberalism is the philosophy committed to the ideal of limited government, constitutionalism, rule of law, due process, and liberty of individuals including freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and free markets....
interchangeably with libertarianism. However, major historical and connotational differences exist over the major terms. Generally, libertarianism means a radicalized
Political radicalism
The term political radicalism denotes political principles focused on altering social structures through revolutionary means and changing value systems in fundamental ways...
form of liberalism. Difficulties may, however, sometimes prevail in terminology when dealing with other libertarian schools of thought.
Consequences vs. rights
Milton FriedmanMilton Friedman
Milton Friedman was an American economist, statistician, academic, and author who taught at the University of Chicago for more than three decades...
defined consequentialist libertarianism
Consequentialist libertarianism
Consequentialist libertarianism refers to the view that liberty leads to favorable consequences such as prosperity, efficiency, or peace, and for that reason should be supported, advocated, and maximized...
as a philosophy that advocates "the least intrusive government consistent with the maximum freedom for each individual as long as he does not interfere with individuals pursuing their own freedom." Where rights-theorist libertarians
Deontological libertarianism
Deontological libertarianism refers to the view that all acts of initiation of force and fraud should be opposed because they are always immoral regardless of the effects of engaging in them...
oppose all intrusion by government, if they support the existence of a state at all, consequentialists libertarians accept limited government interventions that they consider needed to maximize liberty. Another view, contractarian libertarianism, holds that any legitimate authority of government derives not from the consent of the governed
Consent of the governed
"Consent of the governed" is a phrase synonymous with a political theory wherein a government's legitimacy and moral right to use state power is only justified and legal when derived from the people or society over which that political power is exercised...
, but from contract or mutual agreement. Robert Nozick holds a variation on this view, as does Jan Narveson
Jan Narveson
Jan Narveson, OC is professor of philosophy emeritus at the University of Waterloo, in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. An anarcho-capitalist and contractarian, Narveson's form of libertarian anarchism is deeply influenced by the thought of Robert Nozick and David Gauthier.Narveson was born in Erskine,...
, economist James M. Buchanan
James M. Buchanan
James McGill Buchanan, Jr. is an American economist known for his work on public choice theory, for which he received the 1986 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. Buchanan's work initiated research on how politicians' self-interest and non-economic forces affect government economic policy...
, Canadian philosopher David Gauthier
David Gauthier
David Gauthier is a Canadian-American philosopher best known for his neo-Hobbesian social contract theory of morality, as laid out in his book Morals by Agreement.-Biography:...
and Hungarian-French philosopher Anthony de Jasay
Anthony de Jasay
Anthony de Jasay is a Hungarian-born philosopher and economist known for his anti-statist writings. He was born at Aba, Hungary in 1925. . He was educated at Szekesfehervar and Budapest, taking a degree in Agriculture...
.
Foreign military intervention
Libertarians oppose and are suspicious of government intervention in the affairs of other countries, especially violent intervention. Deontological libertarians like Murray Rothbard consider modern warfare, for whatever reason, to be illegitimate. Many ObjectivistsObjectivism (Ayn Rand)
Objectivism is a philosophy created by the Russian-American philosopher and novelist Ayn Rand . Objectivism holds that reality exists independent of consciousness, that human beings have direct contact with reality through sense perception, that one can attain objective knowledge from perception...
and libertarian conservatives argue that intervention is not unethical when a foreign government is abusing the rights of its citizens, but whether a nation should intervene depends on its own self-interest.
Immigration
Libertarians generally support freedom of movement, including over borders. A minority argue that open borders amount to legalized trespassing.Inheritance
Libertarians may disagree over what to do in absence of a will or contract in the event of death, and over posthumous property rights. In the event of a contract, the contract is enforced according to the property owner's wishes. Typically, libertarians believe that any unwilled property goes to remaining living relatives, and ideally, none of the property goes to the government in such a case. Others would say that if no will has been made, the property immediately enters the state of nature from which anyone (save the state) can homesteadHomestead principle
The homestead principle in law is the concept that one can gain ownership of a natural thing that currently has no owner by using it or building something out of it...
it.
Intellectual property
Libertarians hold a variety of views on intellectual property and patents. Some libertarian natural rightsNatural rights
Natural and legal rights are two types of rights theoretically distinct according to philosophers and political scientists. Natural rights are rights not contingent upon the laws, customs, or beliefs of any particular culture or government, and therefore universal and inalienable...
theorists justify property rights in ideas (and other intangibles) just like they do property rights in physical goods, saying she who made it owns it; other libertarian natural rights theorists, especially since Kinsella, have held that only physical material can be owned, and that ownership of "intellectual property
Intellectual property
Intellectual property is a term referring to a number of distinct types of creations of the mind for which a set of exclusive rights are recognized—and the corresponding fields of law...
" (IP) amount to an illegitimate claim of ownership over that which enters another's mind, that which cannot be removed or controlled without violation of the non-aggression axiom. Pro-IP libertarians of the utilitarian tradition say that IP maximizes innovation, while anti-IP libertarians of the selfsame persuasion say that it causes shortages of innovation. This latter view holds that IP is a euphemism for intellectual protectionism and should be abolished altogether.
LGBT rights
Libertarians believe that lesbianLesbian
Lesbian is a term most widely used in the English language to describe sexual and romantic desire between females. The word may be used as a noun, to refer to women who identify themselves or who are characterized by others as having the primary attribute of female homosexuality, or as an...
, gay
Gay
Gay is a word that refers to a homosexual person, especially a homosexual male. For homosexual women the specific term is "lesbian"....
, bisexual
Bisexuality
Bisexuality is sexual behavior or an orientation involving physical or romantic attraction to both males and females, especially with regard to men and women. It is one of the three main classifications of sexual orientation, along with a heterosexual and a homosexual orientation, all a part of the...
, and transgender
Transgender
Transgender is a general term applied to a variety of individuals, behaviors, and groups involving tendencies to vary from culturally conventional gender roles....
/transsexual
Transsexualism
Transsexualism is an individual's identification with a gender inconsistent or not culturally associated with their biological sex. Simply put, it defines a person whose biological birth sex conflicts with their psychological gender...
(LGBT
LGBT
LGBT is an initialism that collectively refers to "lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender" people. In use since the 1990s, the term "LGBT" is an adaptation of the initialism "LGB", which itself started replacing the phrase "gay community" beginning in the mid-to-late 1980s, which many within the...
) adults have a right to their own lifestyle or sexual preference, provided that such expression does not trample on the same freedom of other people to choose their own sexual preference or voluntary association
Voluntary association
A voluntary association or union is a group of individuals who enter into an agreement as volunteers to form a body to accomplish a purpose.Strictly speaking, in many jurisdictions no formalities are necessary to start an association...
s. They support eliminating any role for government in marriage and propose all marriage contracts between two or more adults of any sex be accepted as legal contracts.
Natural resources
Most libertarians (such as free market environmentalistsFree-market environmentalism
Free-market environmentalism is a position that argues that the free market, property rights, and tort law provide the best tools to preserve the health and sustainability of the environment...
and objectivists) believe that environmental damage is a result of state ownership and mismanagement of natural resources
Tragedy of the commons
The tragedy of the commons is a dilemma arising from the situation in which multiple individuals, acting independently and rationally consulting their own self-interest, will ultimately deplete a shared limited resource, even when it is clear that it is not in anyone's long-term interest for this...
and believe that private ownership of all natural resources will result in a better environment, as a private owner of property will have more incentive to ensure the longer term value of the property. Others, such as geolibertarians
Geolibertarianism
Geolibertarianism is a political movement that strives to reconcile libertarianism and Georgism .Geolibertarians are advocates of geoism, which is the position that all natural resources – most importantly land – are common assets to which all individuals have an equal right to access; therefore if...
, believe that such resources (especially land) cannot be considered allodial property.
Race and sex
Libertarians are against laws that favor or harm any race or either sex. These include Jim Crow laws, state segregationRacial segregation
Racial segregation is the separation of humans into racial groups in daily life. It may apply to activities such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a public toilet, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home...
, interracial marriage
Interracial marriage
Interracial marriage occurs when two people of differing racial groups marry. This is a form of exogamy and can be seen in the broader context of miscegenation .-Legality of interracial marriage:In the Western world certain jurisdictions have had regulations...
ban
Ban (law)
A ban is, generally, any decree that prohibits something.Bans are formed for the prohibition of activities within a certain political territory. Some see this as a negative act and others see it as maintaining the "status quo"...
s, and laws restricting women's rights
Women's rights
Women's rights are entitlements and freedoms claimed for women and girls of all ages in many societies.In some places these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behaviour, whereas in others they may be ignored or suppressed...
; they likewise oppose state-enforced affirmative action
Affirmative action
Affirmative action refers to policies that take factors including "race, color, religion, gender, sexual orientation or national origin" into consideration in order to benefit an underrepresented group, usually as a means to counter the effects of a history of discrimination.-Origins:The term...
, hate crime
Hate crime
In crime and law, hate crimes occur when a perpetrator targets a victim because of his or her perceived membership in a certain social group, usually defined by racial group, religion, sexual orientation, disability, class, ethnicity, nationality, age, gender, gender identity, social status or...
laws and anti-discrimination laws. They would not use the state to prevent voluntary affirmative action or voluntary discrimination. Most believe that the drive for profit in the marketplace will diminish or eliminate the effects of racism, which they tend to consider to be inherently collectivist. This causes a degree of dissonance among libertarians in federal systems such as in the U.S., where there is debate among libertarians about whether the federal government has the right to coerce states to change their democratically created laws.
Taxation
Some libertarians believe that logical consistency to fundamental libertarian principles such as the non-aggression principleNon-aggression principle
The non-aggression principle , or NAP for short, is a moral stance which asserts that aggression is inherently illegitimate...
includes opposing taxation. They would fund all services through contributions, user fees
User fees
People pay user fees for the use of many public services and facilities. At the federal level in the US, there is a charge for walking to the top of the Statue of Liberty, to drive into many National parks, and to use particular services of the Library of Congress.States may charge tolls for...
and lotteries. Some proponents of limited government support low taxes, arguing that a society with no taxation would have difficulty providing public good
Public good
In economics, a public good is a good that is non-rival and non-excludable. Non-rivalry means that consumption of the good by one individual does not reduce availability of the good for consumption by others; and non-excludability means that no one can be effectively excluded from using the good...
s such as crime prevention
Crime prevention
Crime prevention is the attempt to reduce victimization and to deter crime and criminals. It is applied specifically to efforts made by governments to reduce crime, enforce the law, and maintain criminal justice.-Studies:...
. Geolibertarians support a land value tax
Land value tax
A land value tax is a levy on the unimproved value of land. It is an ad valorem tax on land that disregards the value of buildings, personal property and other improvements...
.
Non-voting
Various libertarians use non-voting as a strategy. Some consider voting as impractical and some consider voting as immoral. Voluntaryists and Agorists oppose voting.Political alliances
Libertarians ally politically with modern conservatives over economic issues and gun laws, while they are more prone to ally with liberals on other civil libertiesCivil liberties
Civil liberties are rights and freedoms that provide an individual specific rights such as the freedom from slavery and forced labour, freedom from torture and death, the right to liberty and security, right to a fair trial, the right to defend one's self, the right to own and bear arms, the right...
issues and non-interventionism
Non-interventionism
Nonintervention or non-interventionism is a foreign policy which holds that political rulers should avoid alliances with other nations, but still retain diplomacy, and avoid all wars not related to direct self-defense...
. They may choose to vote for candidates of other parties depending on the individual and the issues they promote.
Revolution
Libertarians generally agree on the desirability of rapid and fundamental changes in power or organizational structures, but may disagree on the means by which such changes might be achieved.External links
- Ronald Hamowy, The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism, Cato InstituteCato InstituteThe Cato Institute is a libertarian think tank headquartered in Washington, D.C. It was founded in 1977 by Edward H. Crane, who remains president and CEO, and Charles Koch, chairman of the board and chief executive officer of the conglomerate Koch Industries, Inc., the largest privately held...
, SAGE, 2008 ISBN 1-4129-6580-2, 9781412965804