Chimurenga
Encyclopedia
Chimurenga is a Shona word
for 'revolutionary struggle'. The word's modern interpretation has been extended to describe a struggle for human rights, political dignity and social justice, specifically used for the African insurrections against British colonial rule 1896–1897 (First Chimurenga) and the guerrilla war
against the white minority regime of Rhodesia
1966–1980 (Second Chimurenga).
The concept is also occasionally used in reference to the land reform programme undertaken by the Government of Zimbabwe since 2000 (so-called Third Chimurenga).
The expression is also used in context with modern Zimbabwean music, Chimurenga music
.
. This conflict refers to the 1896–1897 Ndebele-Shona
revolt against colonial rule by the British South Africa Company
.
Mlimo, the Matabele spiritual/religious leader, is credited with fomenting much of the anger that led to this confrontation. He convinced the Ndebele and Shona that the white settlers (almost 4,000 strong by then) were responsible for the drought, locust plagues and the cattle disease rinderpest ravaging the country at the time. Mlimo's call to battle was well timed. Only a few months earlier, the British South Africa Company's Administrator General for Matabeleland
, Leander Starr Jameson
, had sent most of his troops and armaments to fight the Transvaal Republic in the ill-fated Jameson Raid
. This left the country's defenses in disarray. The Ndebele began their revolt in March 1896.
In June 1896, Mashaykuma led the uprising of the Zezuru Shona people located to the South West of the capital Salisbury.Mashayamombe worked with the local spiritual leader Kagubi,and during this period a British farmer Norton and his wife were killed at Porta Farm in Norton.
The third phase of the First Chimurenga was joined by the Hwata Dynasty
of Mazoe.They succeeded in driving away the British settlers from their lands on 20 June 1896.Three months later,the British South Africa Police regrouped and establish control over the Hwata people after their Mambo (King) Hwata surrendered together with his spirit medium, Nehanda Nyakasikana
.
Hwata and Nehanda Nyakasikana were sentenced to death and executed.
Mlimo was eventually assassinated in his temple in Matobo Hills by the American scout Frederick Russell Burnham
. Upon learning of the death of Mlimo, Cecil Rhodes boldly walked unarmed into the native's stronghold and persuaded the Impi
to lay down their arms. The First Chimurenga thus ended on October 1897.Matabeleland and Mashonaland
were unified as a colony of Great Britain and named Southern Rhodesia.
's liberation war, refers to the guerrilla war of 1966–1979 which led to the end of white-minority rule in Rhodesia
and to the de-facto independence of Zimbabwe. African nationalist politicians have always regarded Rhodesia as a British colony that paid allegiance to the British crown with British courts having appellate jurisdiction over Rhodesia. Its physical manifestation was, however, as a conflict between the minority white settler government of Ian Smith
Rhodesian Front
and the African nationalists of the Patriotic Front
alliance of ZANU (mainly Shona
) and ZAPU (mainly Ndebele) movements, led by Robert Mugabe
and Joshua Nkomo
respectively. This is a possible explanation of the failure of all attempts by the minority white government of Rhodesia to reach a negotiated settlement and the substantial success of the British initiated negotiations, which culminated in the Lancaster House Constitutional Agreement in 1979.
opposition as a war of national liberation from colonialism and racism. At the time of the conflict, the then Wilson Government in London and Patriotic Front
(former military alliance of ZAPU-PF and ZANU-PF) shared this view, along with the OAU, United Nations
and many members of the Commonwealth of Nations
such as Canada
, India
, Ghana
and New Zealand
, China
the European Union
and the former Eastern Block states.
government of Ian Smith
and had only ruled since the end of the British South Africa Company
in the 1920s. However, this expulsion of the British was not recognized by both the British Government and the African nationalists and the rest of the International community who reacted by imposing an economic blockade on Rhodesia. This did not deter the minority Settler-dominated Rhodesian Government to view the Nationalists as Communist agents and their conflict as part of the defense of Western values (Christianity, the rule of Law and (ironically) democracy); they refused to compromise on most political, economic and social grievances as raised by the Nationalists who claimed to represent the majority black Shona and Ndebele population, in part because the Smith Administration saw the traditional chiefs as the legitimate voice of the Shona and Ndebele population and the Nationalists as dangerous usurpers. With no end in sight the Smith Administration attempted to weaken the power of the nationalists cause by acceding to an "Internal Settlement" which ended formal white rule, changed the name of the country to Zimbabwe-Rhodesia and created the country's first nominal black head of government, Abel Muzorewa
. However, unsatisfied with this and spurned on by Britain's refusal to recognise the new order, the Nationalist forces persisted.
The Second Chimurenga/Bush War ended when the white-dominated government democratically elected black Prime Minister Abel Muzorewa
) returned power to the British government at the 1979 Lancaster House Constitutional Conference
. At the behest of both South Africa
(its major backer) and the US, multi-ethnic elections were subsequently held in February 1980. Britain recognised this new government, and the internationally recognised independent country was renamed as Zimbabwe.
, who mixed African rhythmic patterns and instruments such as Mbira
(thumb piano), drums, gourd rattles with Western styles (e-guitar) in songs that achieved wide popularity among the protest movement against white minority rule. Today the term Chimurenga music
refers to popular Shona music
from Zimbabwe.
Shona language
Shona is a Bantu language, native to the Shona people of Zimbabwe and southern Zambia; the term is also used to identify peoples who speak one of the Shona language dialects: Zezuru, Karanga, Manyika, Ndau and Korekore...
for 'revolutionary struggle'. The word's modern interpretation has been extended to describe a struggle for human rights, political dignity and social justice, specifically used for the African insurrections against British colonial rule 1896–1897 (First Chimurenga) and the guerrilla war
Rhodesian Bush War
The Rhodesian Bush War – also known as the Second Chimurenga or the Zimbabwe War of Liberation – was a civil war which took place between July 1964 and December 1979 in the unrecognised country of Rhodesia...
against the white minority regime of Rhodesia
Rhodesia
Rhodesia , officially the Republic of Rhodesia from 1970, was an unrecognised state located in southern Africa that existed between 1965 and 1979 following its Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965...
1966–1980 (Second Chimurenga).
The concept is also occasionally used in reference to the land reform programme undertaken by the Government of Zimbabwe since 2000 (so-called Third Chimurenga).
The expression is also used in context with modern Zimbabwean music, Chimurenga music
Chimurenga music
Chimurenga music is a Zimbabwean popular music genre coined and popularised by Thomas Mapfumo. Chimurenga is a Shona language word for struggle. The word's modern interpretation has been extended to describe a struggle for human rights, political dignity and social justice...
.
First Chimurenga
The First Chimurenga is now celebrated in Zimbabwe as the First War of Independence, it is also known in the English speaking world as the Second Matabele WarSecond Matabele War
The Second Matabele War, also known as the Matabeleland Rebellion and in Zimbabwe as the First Chimurenga, was fought in 1896–97 between the British troops and the Ndebele people....
. This conflict refers to the 1896–1897 Ndebele-Shona
Shona people
Shona is the name collectively given to two groups of people in the east and southwest of Zimbabwe, north eastern Botswana and southern Mozambique.-Shona Regional Classification:...
revolt against colonial rule by the British South Africa Company
British South Africa Company
The British South Africa Company was established by Cecil Rhodes through the amalgamation of the Central Search Association and the Exploring Company Ltd., receiving a royal charter in 1889...
.
Mlimo, the Matabele spiritual/religious leader, is credited with fomenting much of the anger that led to this confrontation. He convinced the Ndebele and Shona that the white settlers (almost 4,000 strong by then) were responsible for the drought, locust plagues and the cattle disease rinderpest ravaging the country at the time. Mlimo's call to battle was well timed. Only a few months earlier, the British South Africa Company's Administrator General for Matabeleland
Matabeleland
Modern day Matabeleland is a region in Zimbabwe divided into three provinces: Matabeleland North, Bulawayo and Matabeleland South. These provinces are in the west and south-west of Zimbabwe, between the Limpopo and Zambezi rivers. The region is named after its inhabitants, the Ndebele people...
, Leander Starr Jameson
Leander Starr Jameson
Sir Leander Starr Jameson, 1st Baronet, KCMG, CB, , also known as "Doctor Jim", "The Doctor" or "Lanner", was a British colonial statesman who was best known for his involvement in the Jameson Raid....
, had sent most of his troops and armaments to fight the Transvaal Republic in the ill-fated Jameson Raid
Jameson Raid
The Jameson Raid was a botched raid on Paul Kruger's Transvaal Republic carried out by a British colonial statesman Leander Starr Jameson and his Rhodesian and Bechuanaland policemen over the New Year weekend of 1895–96...
. This left the country's defenses in disarray. The Ndebele began their revolt in March 1896.
In June 1896, Mashaykuma led the uprising of the Zezuru Shona people located to the South West of the capital Salisbury.Mashayamombe worked with the local spiritual leader Kagubi,and during this period a British farmer Norton and his wife were killed at Porta Farm in Norton.
The third phase of the First Chimurenga was joined by the Hwata Dynasty
Hwata dynasty
-HWATA DYNASTY:Three brothers, Shayachimwe, Nyakudya and Gutsa who were of the Shava Dynasty and Museyamwa totem, migrated northwards from Buhera in the south of Zimbabwe in late eighteenth century. Between 1760 and 1780, the three brothers were invited by elder brother, Chief Seke Mutema to...
of Mazoe.They succeeded in driving away the British settlers from their lands on 20 June 1896.Three months later,the British South Africa Police regrouped and establish control over the Hwata people after their Mambo (King) Hwata surrendered together with his spirit medium, Nehanda Nyakasikana
Nehanda Nyakasikana
Nehanda Charwe Nyakasikana was a svikiro, or spirit medium of the Zezuru Shona people. As one of the spiritual leaders of the Shona, she provided inspiration to the Hwata Dynasty for their revolt against the British South Africa Company colonisation of Mashonaland and Matabeleland .She was a Hera...
.
Hwata and Nehanda Nyakasikana were sentenced to death and executed.
Mlimo was eventually assassinated in his temple in Matobo Hills by the American scout Frederick Russell Burnham
Frederick Russell Burnham
Frederick Russell Burnham, DSO was an American scout and world traveling adventurer known for his service to the British Army in colonial Africa and for teaching woodcraft to Robert Baden-Powell, thus becoming one of the inspirations for the founding of the international Scouting Movement.Burnham...
. Upon learning of the death of Mlimo, Cecil Rhodes boldly walked unarmed into the native's stronghold and persuaded the Impi
Impi
An Impi is an isiZulu word for any armed body of men. However, in English it is often used to refer to a Zulu regiment, which is called an ibutho in Zulu. Its beginnings lie far back in historic tribal warfare customs, where groups of armed men called impis battled...
to lay down their arms. The First Chimurenga thus ended on October 1897.Matabeleland and Mashonaland
Mashonaland
Mashonaland is a region in northern Zimbabwe. It is the home of the Shona people.Currently, Mashonaland is divided into three provinces, with a total population of about 3 million:* Mashonaland West* Mashonaland Central* Mashonaland East...
were unified as a colony of Great Britain and named Southern Rhodesia.
Second Chimurenga (1966–1979)
The Second Chimurenga, also known as the Rhodesian Bush War or as ZimbabweZimbabwe
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country located in the southern part of the African continent, between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers. It is bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia and a tip of Namibia to the northwest and Mozambique to the east. Zimbabwe has three...
's liberation war, refers to the guerrilla war of 1966–1979 which led to the end of white-minority rule in Rhodesia
Rhodesia
Rhodesia , officially the Republic of Rhodesia from 1970, was an unrecognised state located in southern Africa that existed between 1965 and 1979 following its Unilateral Declaration of Independence from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965...
and to the de-facto independence of Zimbabwe. African nationalist politicians have always regarded Rhodesia as a British colony that paid allegiance to the British crown with British courts having appellate jurisdiction over Rhodesia. Its physical manifestation was, however, as a conflict between the minority white settler government of Ian Smith
Ian Smith
Ian Douglas Smith GCLM ID was a politician active in the government of Southern Rhodesia, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Rhodesia, Zimbabwe Rhodesia and Zimbabwe from 1948 to 1987, most notably serving as Prime Minister of Rhodesia from 13 April 1964 to 1 June 1979...
Rhodesian Front
Rhodesian Front
The Rhodesian Front was a political party in Southern Rhodesia when the country was under white minority rule. Led first by Winston Field, and, from 1964, by Ian Smith, the Rhodesian Front was the successor to the Dominion Party, which was the main opposition party in Southern Rhodesia during the...
and the African nationalists of the Patriotic Front
Patriotic Front
The Patriotic Front can mean:* Patriotic Front * Manuel Rodríguez Patriotic Front* Patriotic Front * Patriotic Front * Patriotic Front * Rwandese Patriotic Front* Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front...
alliance of ZANU (mainly Shona
Shona people
Shona is the name collectively given to two groups of people in the east and southwest of Zimbabwe, north eastern Botswana and southern Mozambique.-Shona Regional Classification:...
) and ZAPU (mainly Ndebele) movements, led by Robert Mugabe
Robert Mugabe
Robert Gabriel Mugabe is the President of Zimbabwe. As one of the leaders of the liberation movement against white-minority rule, he was elected into power in 1980...
and Joshua Nkomo
Joshua Nkomo
Joshua Mqabuko Nyongolo Nkomo was the leader and founder of the Zimbabwe African People's Union and a member of the Kalanga tribe...
respectively. This is a possible explanation of the failure of all attempts by the minority white government of Rhodesia to reach a negotiated settlement and the substantial success of the British initiated negotiations, which culminated in the Lancaster House Constitutional Agreement in 1979.
Official perspective
This conflict is seen by the present day Zimbabwean Government and the official MDCMovement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai
The Movement for Democratic Change Zimbabwe is a political party and the largest party in the House of Assembly of Zimbabwe. It is the main formation formed from the split of the original Movement for Democratic Change in 2005.-Foundation:...
opposition as a war of national liberation from colonialism and racism. At the time of the conflict, the then Wilson Government in London and Patriotic Front
Patriotic Front
The Patriotic Front can mean:* Patriotic Front * Manuel Rodríguez Patriotic Front* Patriotic Front * Patriotic Front * Patriotic Front * Rwandese Patriotic Front* Zimbabwe African National Union - Patriotic Front...
(former military alliance of ZAPU-PF and ZANU-PF) shared this view, along with the OAU, United Nations
United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and achievement of world peace...
and many members of the Commonwealth of Nations
Commonwealth of Nations
The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and formerly known as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation of fifty-four independent member states...
such as Canada
Canada
Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean...
, India
India
India , officially the Republic of India , is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world...
, Ghana
Ghana
Ghana , officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country located in West Africa. It is bordered by Côte d'Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south...
and New Zealand
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses and numerous smaller islands. The country is situated some east of Australia across the Tasman Sea, and roughly south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga...
, China
China
Chinese civilization may refer to:* China for more general discussion of the country.* Chinese culture* Greater China, the transnational community of ethnic Chinese.* History of China* Sinosphere, the area historically affected by Chinese culture...
the European Union
European Union
The European Union is an economic and political union of 27 independent member states which are located primarily in Europe. The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community , formed by six countries in 1958...
and the former Eastern Block states.
Perspective of the Rhodesian Front
At the time, however, the Rhodesian government saw the conflict as a fight between one part of the country's population (the minority whites) on behalf of supposedly the whole country, including the majority racially discriminated blacks against another, externally financed party made up of allegedly black radicals and communists in defense of the country and of feigned Western ideals. The Nationalists saw their country as having been occupied and dominated by a foreign power, namely, Britain, since 1980 - even though the British Government, in the person of the Governor General had been expelled in 1964 by the Rhodesian FrontRhodesian Front
The Rhodesian Front was a political party in Southern Rhodesia when the country was under white minority rule. Led first by Winston Field, and, from 1964, by Ian Smith, the Rhodesian Front was the successor to the Dominion Party, which was the main opposition party in Southern Rhodesia during the...
government of Ian Smith
Ian Smith
Ian Douglas Smith GCLM ID was a politician active in the government of Southern Rhodesia, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Rhodesia, Zimbabwe Rhodesia and Zimbabwe from 1948 to 1987, most notably serving as Prime Minister of Rhodesia from 13 April 1964 to 1 June 1979...
and had only ruled since the end of the British South Africa Company
British South Africa Company
The British South Africa Company was established by Cecil Rhodes through the amalgamation of the Central Search Association and the Exploring Company Ltd., receiving a royal charter in 1889...
in the 1920s. However, this expulsion of the British was not recognized by both the British Government and the African nationalists and the rest of the International community who reacted by imposing an economic blockade on Rhodesia. This did not deter the minority Settler-dominated Rhodesian Government to view the Nationalists as Communist agents and their conflict as part of the defense of Western values (Christianity, the rule of Law and (ironically) democracy); they refused to compromise on most political, economic and social grievances as raised by the Nationalists who claimed to represent the majority black Shona and Ndebele population, in part because the Smith Administration saw the traditional chiefs as the legitimate voice of the Shona and Ndebele population and the Nationalists as dangerous usurpers. With no end in sight the Smith Administration attempted to weaken the power of the nationalists cause by acceding to an "Internal Settlement" which ended formal white rule, changed the name of the country to Zimbabwe-Rhodesia and created the country's first nominal black head of government, Abel Muzorewa
Abel Muzorewa
Bishop Abel Tendekayi Muzorewa served as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia from the Internal Settlement to the Lancaster House Agreement in 1979...
. However, unsatisfied with this and spurned on by Britain's refusal to recognise the new order, the Nationalist forces persisted.
The Second Chimurenga/Bush War ended when the white-dominated government democratically elected black Prime Minister Abel Muzorewa
Abel Muzorewa
Bishop Abel Tendekayi Muzorewa served as Prime Minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia from the Internal Settlement to the Lancaster House Agreement in 1979...
) returned power to the British government at the 1979 Lancaster House Constitutional Conference
Lancaster House Agreement
The negotiations which led to the Lancaster House Agreement brought independence to Rhodesia following Ian Smith’s Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965. The Agreement covered the Independence Constitution, pre-independence arrangements, and a ceasefire...
. At the behest of both South Africa
South Africa
The Republic of South Africa is a country in southern Africa. Located at the southern tip of Africa, it is divided into nine provinces, with of coastline on the Atlantic and Indian oceans...
(its major backer) and the US, multi-ethnic elections were subsequently held in February 1980. Britain recognised this new government, and the internationally recognised independent country was renamed as Zimbabwe.
In music
'Chimurenga' also refers to a style of music first branded by Thomas MapfumoThomas Mapfumo
Thomas Tafirenyika Mapfumo is a Zimbabwean musician known as "The Lion of Zimbabwe" and "Mukanya" for his immense popularity and for the political influence he wields through his music, including his sharp criticism of the government of President Robert Mugabe...
, who mixed African rhythmic patterns and instruments such as Mbira
Mbira
In African music, the mbira is a musical instrument that consists of a wooden board to which staggered metal keys have been attached. It is often fitted into a resonator...
(thumb piano), drums, gourd rattles with Western styles (e-guitar) in songs that achieved wide popularity among the protest movement against white minority rule. Today the term Chimurenga music
Chimurenga music
Chimurenga music is a Zimbabwean popular music genre coined and popularised by Thomas Mapfumo. Chimurenga is a Shona language word for struggle. The word's modern interpretation has been extended to describe a struggle for human rights, political dignity and social justice...
refers to popular Shona music
Shona music
Shona music is the music of the Shona people of Zimbabwe. There are several different types of traditional Shona music including mbira, singing, hosho and drumming. Very often, this music will be accompanied by dancing, and participation by the audience...
from Zimbabwe.