Cave rescue
Encyclopedia
Wilderness
Wilderness or wildland is a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified by human activity. It may also be defined as: "The most intact, undisturbed wild natural areas left on our planet—those last truly wild places that humans do not control and have not developed with...
rescue
Rescue
Rescue refers to responsive operations that usually involve the saving of life, or prevention of injury during an incident or dangerous situation....
in which injured, trapped or lost cave
Cave
A cave or cavern is a natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. The term applies to natural cavities some part of which is in total darkness. The word cave also includes smaller spaces like rock shelters, sea caves, and grottos.Speleology is the science of exploration and study...
explorers are medically treated and extracted from various cave environments.
Cave rescue borrows elements from firefighting, confined space rescue
Confined space rescue
Confined space rescue is a subset of technical rescue operations that involves the rescue and recovery of victims trapped in a confined space or in a place only accessible through confined spaces, such as underground vaults, storage silos, storage tanks, or sewers.Confined space rescues can be...
, rope rescue
Rope rescue
Rope rescue is a subset of technical rescue that involves the use of static nylon kernmantle ropes, anchoring and belaying devices, friction rappel devices, various devices to utilize mechanical advantage for hauling systems, and other specialized equipment to reach victims and safely recover...
and mountaineering
Mountaineering
Mountaineering or mountain climbing is the sport, hobby or profession of hiking, skiing, and climbing mountains. While mountaineering began as attempts to reach the highest point of unclimbed mountains it has branched into specialisations that address different aspects of the mountain and consists...
techniques but has also developed its own special techniques and skills for performing work in conditions that are almost always difficult and demanding. Since cave accidents, on an absolute scale, are a very limited form of incident, and cave rescue is a very specialized skill, normal emergency staff are rarely employed in the underground elements of the rescue. Instead, this is usually undertaken by other experienced cavers who undergo regular training through their organizations and are called up at need.
Cave rescues are slow, deliberate operations that require both a high level of organized teamwork and good communications. The extremes of the cave environment (air temperature, water, vertical depth) dictate every aspect of a cave rescue. Therefore the rescuers must adapt skills and techniques that are as dynamic as the environment they must operate in.
Overview
A network of international cave rescue units is organised under the banner of the Union Internationale de Spéléologie (UIS) - Cave Rescue Commission. Most international cave rescue units such as the New South WalesNew South Wales
New South Wales is a state of :Australia, located in the east of the country. It is bordered by Queensland, Victoria and South Australia to the north, south and west respectively. To the east, the state is bordered by the Tasman Sea, which forms part of the Pacific Ocean. New South Wales...
Cave Rescue Squad based in Sydney
Sydney
Sydney is the most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. As of June 2010, the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4.6 million people...
, Australia
Australia
Australia , officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area...
are listed with contacts in the event of a cave incident.
The worlds first cave rescue team, the C.R.O was founded in 1935 in Yorkshire and like all UK cave rescue groups is composed of volunteer cavers and funded entirely by donations. In the UK teams typically have 'callout lists' containing the details of up to 200 cavers who can be contacted in case of an emergency.
Organized Cave Rescue Units in the United States
United States
The United States of America is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district...
are generally city/county funded volunteer squads, composed mainly of seasoned, local cavers. The typical Southeastern US cave rescue team averages between 15 and 20 active members. Due to the excessive amount of manpower required on a large scale cave rescue, it is not uncommon for multiple cave rescue units from various regions to assist another in extensive underground operations. Because organized cave rescue teams are quite rare, it is also quite common for local units to cover regions that extend far beyond their agency's jurisdiction. The number of cave rescues in North America
North America
North America is a continent wholly within the Northern Hemisphere and almost wholly within the Western Hemisphere. It is also considered a northern subcontinent of the Americas...
are relatively small compared to other common wilderness rescues. The average number of reported cave related incidents is usually 40 to 50 per year. In most years approximately 10 percent of reported accidents result in death.
In the US, the leading cave rescue training curriculum is developed and deployed by the National Cave Rescue Commission (NCRC), which operates as part of the National Speleological Society
National Speleological Society
The National Speleological Society is an organization formed in 1941 to advance the exploration, conservation, study, and understanding of caves in the United States. Originally located in Washington D.C., its current offices are in Huntsville, Alabama...
(NSS). The NCRC is not an operational cave rescue unit, but the organization is composed of members of regional rescue squads.
Historical examples
- Marcel Loubens from Pierre-Saint-Martin Cave in the French PyreneesFrench PyreneesThe French Pyrenees is a large mountain range on the French-Spanish border that is part of the following départements, from east to west: Pyrénées-Orientales, Aude, Ariège, Haute-Garonne, Hautes-Pyrénées, and Pyrénées-Atlantiques ....
in 1952. Loubens died from a fatal plunge down the 1135 feet (345.9 m) entrance shaft after a clasp on his harness broke on ascent. Members of Loubens' expedition spent over 24 hours attempting unsuccessfully to haul their friend back to the surface. Despite the efforts of the team doctor, Loubens died 36 hours into his ill-fated rescue attempt. After his passing the remaining members aborted their recovery attempt. Louben's body remained in the cave for two more years before cavers returned him to the surface in 1954. The blood transfusionBlood transfusionBlood transfusion is the process of receiving blood products into one's circulation intravenously. Transfusions are used in a variety of medical conditions to replace lost components of the blood...
given to Loubens by the team doctor was likely the first subterranean care of its kind.
- James G. Mitchell from Schroeder's Pants Cave in ManheimManheim, New YorkManheim is a town in Herkimer County, New York, United States. The population was 3,171 at the 2000 census. The town name is derived from Mannheim, in Baden, Germany....
, New YorkNew YorkNew York is a state in the Northeastern region of the United States. It is the nation's third most populous state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south, and by Connecticut, Massachusetts and Vermont to the east...
in 1965. Mitchell was a 23-year-old chemist whose death made national headlines in February 1965 when he died of hypothermiaHypothermiaHypothermia is a condition in which core temperature drops below the required temperature for normal metabolism and body functions which is defined as . Body temperature is usually maintained near a constant level of through biologic homeostasis or thermoregulation...
after becoming stranded on rope in a 75 feet (22.9 m) pit with a frigid waterfall. Initial efforts to recover Mitchell's body failed. A rescue team was flown from Washington DC on Air Force 2. A subsequent three day effort to retrieve Mitchell was aborted after repeated failures and a collapse. The cave was abandoned and blasted shut, essentially making the cave a tomb. Mitchell's death made headlines again forty-one years later when a group returned to the cave and successfully recovered his remains.
- Emily Davis Mobley from Lechuguilla CaveLechuguilla CaveLechuguilla Cave is, as of June 2011, the sixth longest cave known to exist in the world, and the deepest in the continental United States , but it is most famous for its unusual geology, rare formations, and pristine condition....
in New MexicoNew MexicoNew Mexico is a state located in the southwest and western regions of the United States. New Mexico is also usually considered one of the Mountain States. With a population density of 16 per square mile, New Mexico is the sixth-most sparsely inhabited U.S...
in 1991. More than seventy people worked over four days to bring her to the surface after her leg was broken. This was the deepest and most remote cave rescue in American history.
- Floyd CollinsFloyd CollinsWilliam Floyd Collins was a celebrated pioneer cave explorer in central Kentucky, an area that is the location of hundreds of miles of interconnected caves, including the Mammoth Cave National Park...
from Sand Cave in KentuckyKentuckyThe Commonwealth of Kentucky is a state located in the East Central United States of America. As classified by the United States Census Bureau, Kentucky is a Southern state, more specifically in the East South Central region. Kentucky is one of four U.S. states constituted as a commonwealth...
in 1925. Likely the first high profile cave rescue in history. Collins' desperate situation in the depths of Sand Cave made headlines across America. Over 10,000 spectators flocked to Sand Cave in the week following the news of Floyd's predicament. The National Guard was called in to control the carnival-like atmosphere surrounding the cave. Despite the heroic efforts of volunteers who attempted to dig a parallel shaft to free Collins, he was found dead, buried to his shoulders in debris. One 25-pound rock had jammed Collin's foot, preventing his escape. Collins remained trapped in Sand Cave for another 2 months until a crew of German engineers finished the digging of the shaft and extracted his body.
- Neil MossNeil Moss (caver)Neil Moss was the victim of a famous caving accident in England on Sunday, March 22, 1959. A twenty-year-old undergraduate studying philosophy at Balliol College, Oxford, Moss became jammed underground, 1,000 feet from the entrance after descending a narrow unexplored shaft in Peak Cavern, a...
in Peak CavernPeak CavernThe Peak Cavern, also known as the Devil's Arse , is one of the four show caves in Castleton, Derbyshire, England...
, EnglandEnglandEngland is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Scotland to the north and Wales to the west; the Irish Sea is to the north west, the Celtic Sea to the south west, with the North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separating it from continental...
in 1959. Trapped in a narrow tunnel, he was eventually suffocated by carbon dioxideCarbon dioxideCarbon dioxide is a naturally occurring chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom...
after prolonged efforts to free him. Rescuers were unable to free Moss and eventually the family asked that his body remain in the cave.
- Gerald Moni from McBrides Cave in AlabamaAlabamaAlabama is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Tennessee to the north, Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gulf of Mexico to the south, and Mississippi to the west. Alabama ranks 30th in total land area and ranks second in the size of its inland...
in 1997. Moni and his group entered McBrides Cave in flood stage attempting a pull-down trip to the cave's lower entrance. A flash floodFlash floodA flash flood is a rapid flooding of geomorphic low-lying areas—washes, rivers, dry lakes and basins. It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a storm, hurricane, or tropical storm or meltwater from ice or snow flowing over ice sheets or snowfields...
caused the situation in the cave to become extremely hazardous. While attempting to negotiate a pit being inundated with a high flow of water, Gerald mistakenly grabbed only one of two ropes necessary to descend the pit. The resultant fall to a ledge part way down the drop resulted in a broken femurFemurThe femur , or thigh bone, is the most proximal bone of the leg in tetrapod vertebrates capable of walking or jumping, such as most land mammals, birds, many reptiles such as lizards, and amphibians such as frogs. In vertebrates with four legs such as dogs and horses, the femur is found only in...
. A few members of the group managed to negotiate the lower stream passage before it sumped and reached the surface. The others remained with Moni until local rescue agencies could mobilize and attempt a rescue. Rescue teams spent hours waiting for the water levels in the cave to recede enough to attempt an extraction. When teams finally reached Moni, he had been exposed to frigid water for over 12 hours. Rescue teams risked drowning themselves and Moni while traversing the flooded lower cave. 18 hours after his fall Gerald was returned to the surface alive.
- John Edward Jones (1983–2009) in Nutty Putty CaveNutty Putty CaveNutty Putty Cave is a hydrothermal cave located west of Utah Lake in Utah County, Utah, United States.The cave, first explored in 1960 by Dale Green, is currently owned by the Utah School and Institutional Trust Lands Administration, and managed by the Utah Timpanogos Grotto.In the recent past this...
in UtahUtahUtah is a state in the Western United States. It was the 45th state to join the Union, on January 4, 1896. Approximately 80% of Utah's 2,763,885 people live along the Wasatch Front, centering on Salt Lake City. This leaves vast expanses of the state nearly uninhabited, making the population the...
November 2009. John, an experienced caver, had gotten wedged in an unmapped portion of Ed's Push at a 170-degree downward angle with his feet over his head complicating rescue. After some 24+ hours they had been able to move him two feet upward, and lower down food and water, when a part of the rescue rope system failed dropping him fully back into the wedge. It was after this that he became much too weak to help the rescuers in their efforts and he expired shortly thereafter. As of now it's been decided by the family and landowner to leave his body in place and seal the cave permanently.
In the United States
Organized Cave Rescue Teams generally utilize the Incident Command SystemIncident Command System
The Incident Command System is "a systematic tool used for the command, control, and coordination of emergency response" according to the United States Federal Highway Administration...
(ICS). Originally devised for wildland fire teams, today the ICS is used by a variety of agencies throughout North America. The ICS can be modified by each agency depending on the nature of their emergencies. Below is an example of a typical cave rescue Incident Command System.
Incident Commander
The incident commander is the person responsible for all aspects of an emergency response; including quickly developing incident objectives, managing all incident operations, application of resources as well as responsibility for all persons involved. The incident commander sets priorities and...
- is responsible for all activities, including the development and implementation of strategic decisions during the course of an incident. The IC monitors all aspects of an operation including planning, logistics, communications and information.
Underground manager
- usually responsible for the implementation the plan provided by the incident commander. The underground manager assigns and monitors vital tasks including rigging, medical, patient packaging and transport, and communications with the IC on the surface. The underground manager is also usually responsible for the safety of the entire underground team.
Initial response team
- a small unit of first responders. The task of the IRT is to travel through the cave to the patient and evaluate the situation with the purpose of reporting back to the appropriate manager. The IRT usually includes the medical personnel so medical intervention can begin early if necessary.
Medical team
- varies in size and level of the medics ability from agency to agency. The medical team rarely participates in any other rescue function other than managing patient care.
Communications team
- responsible for creating and maintaining communications between the teams in the cave and the Incident Commander. A common means of communications on a cave rescue are military field phones. Military phones are reliable but heavy, and the need for abundant amounts of com-line can make running communications deep into a cave difficult. Another, more advanced type of communication, are low frequency radios, which eliminate the need for thousands of feet of com line in a cave. Low frequency radios can communicate through thousands of feet of solid rock, making them ideal for use deep into caves.
Rigging team
- responsible for one or more stations in a cave that require the rigging of ropes or systems to safely transport the patient and emergency personnel through the cave. In a large scale rescue, many rigging teams could be scattered throughout a cave, assigned with multiple tasks.
Litter team
- made up of rescue personnel that are not already assigned to rigging, communications, medical or management positions. The responsibility of the Litter Team is the packaging and safe transport of the patient through the cave.
Entrance control
- responsible for the logging of all personnel entering and leaving a cave. In some cases the Entrance Control could also be assigned the duty of logging all gear entering and leaving the cave. This is an important task on any cave rescue.
Austria
Bulgaria
France
Germany
Hungary
- , Cave Rescue Bakony Mountains
- , North Hungarian Cave Rescue (Bükk, Gömör-tornai Karszt)
- , Hungarian Cave Rescue
Switzerland
England
- British Cave Rescue Council
- Cave Rescue OrganisationCave Rescue OrganisationThe Cave Rescue Organisation is based in the caving area of the Yorkshire Dales in northern England and was founded in 1935. Although it is staffed by volunteers and funded by donations, it is integrated into the emergency services and will be called out if the police are notified that there has...
, Yorkshire - Derbyshire Cave Rescue Organisation
- Devon Cave Rescue Organisation
- Mendip Cave Rescue Organisation
- Upper Wharfedale Fell Rescue Association
Wales
Formerly
- Gwent Cave Rescue Team, South East Wales
- West Brecon Cave Rescue Team (South-West and mid-Wales)
The above teams were merged in late 2009 to become
Pakistan
A small unit search and rescue squad of Pakistan Cave Research & Caving FederationPakistan Cave Research & Caving Federation
The Pakistan Cave Research & Caving Federation. PCRCF formed in 14th August 1997 is non-profit National constituent Governing body for Underground Exploration, research, and conservation of caves in Pakistan and adjacent areas...
first responders for incidence in Caves or in mountains, this unit also performed volunteer services during the Pakistan earth quake 2007 and 2009. c
United States
- Chattanooga/Hamilton County Cave/Cliff Rescue Unit, Chattanooga, Tennessee
- East Tennessee Cave Rescue, Knoxville, Tennessee
- San Bernardino County Cave & Technical Rescue Team, San Bernardino, California
- Huntsville Cave Rescue Unit, Huntsville, Alabama
- Knoxville Rescue Squad Cave/Vert Team, Knoxville, Tennessee
Australia
- Australian Speleological Federation, Australian Cave Rescue
- New South Wales Cave Rescue Squad, Sydney, Australia