Camel farming in Sudan
Encyclopedia
Over the past few decades camel
s have regained recognition for their food-producing potential in arid
and semi-arid
areas of Sudan
. After having been dismissed as uneconomical by the Sudanese government, their vital role in supporting human populations in some of the poorest and frequently drought-stricken areas of the world has now been widely acknowledged (Hjort af Ornäs, 1988). The devastating African drought in 1984-1985 demonstrated that camel ownership can give pastoralists a competitive edge and an excellent chance for survival. Whereas entire herds of cattle, sheep and goats succumbed to the arid conditions, camel populations survived relatively unscathed. Consequently, some pastoral groups with deeply ingrained traditions of cattle herding, such as the Samburu
in northern Kenya
, started to acquire camels (Sperling, 1987), a fact which has come to the attention of development agencies and international organizations.
In parts of the rain-fed agricultural belt of the Sudan, current developments suggest that camels are indeed able to be integrated with crop cultivation
systems. They can exploit efficiently the by-products of large-scale mechanized durra (sorghum) cultivation and may even mitigate some of the ecological side-effects for which these monocropping schemes are known.
nomad
s, its fertile
clay soils in the central plains have caused it to be regarded as an area of economic potential for the Arab world. With capital from international donors, in the late 1960s a programme was instituted for the large-scale, mechanized cultivation of durra (sorghum
). Under this scheme, the Mechanized Farming Corporation leased large plots of land, mostly to urban entrepreneurs and landlords, and provided loans for the purchase of machinery.
However during the course of cultivation, the land was stripped of its natural vegetation
where shrubs were usually processed into charcoal
, and the soil disc-ploughed and seeded. Although yields were initially high, exposure of the topsoil to deflation and erosion, combined with nutrient depletion in the absence of crop rotation schemes, led to drastic declines within just a few years and rapid deforestation
. The cultivators then were forced to relocate to virgin plots and the process was repeated. The abandoned land- meanwhile became useless not only for cultivation, but also as grazing ground because of the destruction of the native vegetation. By the end of the 1970s, eight million feddan
s (34,000 km2) had already come under cultivation (Shepherd, 1983). The attendant processes of desertification have been well documented and shown to have led to a significant expansion of the desert to the south (Ibrahim, 1978)..
and Bishareen, prized for their racing and riding capacities, the Rashaidi, a sturdy transport camel with superior drought resistance, and the large whitish Lahaween, which gives high meat yields.
The Arab breed of camel is well suited for meat
production and transportation. Camel milk
is important at the subsistence level but is rarely marketed. The export of camels for slaughter -mostly to Egypt, but also to the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and other countries, is an important source of foreign currency, which is not overlooked in a country with few road
s and a chronic fuel shortage.
area of eastern Sudan. This tribe emigrated from Saudi Arabia
to the Sudan in the last century and, because of their relatively recent arrival, their territorial rights have been regarded as tenuous at best. However, as specialized camel breeders, they have been able to adapt themselves well to the expansion of sorghum cultivation into their grazing grounds. By using sorghum byproducts to feed their camels, they have been able to significantly increase food output per unit area.
The Rashaida tribe breeds two distinct types of camel. A small number of Anafi breeding stock is kept to cater for the lucrative racing camel market in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf
states, but the majority of the tribe's camels belong to the Rashaida breed. This is a relatively small-sized but stocky breed, characterized by its reddish colour during adulthood, although young animals are dark grey. It is known for its high milk yields and is regarded as especially hardy and drought-resistant. To improve body weight and meat productivity, the Rashaida tribe has bought breeding stock from the neighbouring Lahaween tribe, whose larger camels are stronger-bone
d, cross breeding which is believed to display hybrid vigor.
is a key ingredient in their diet and, since sorghum is their only other staple, it represents their almost exclusive source of protein and vitamins. Cash is received at town markets for male camels sold for slaughter at the age of six to seven years. They are collected at regular intervals into large herds and driven to the meat markets in Egypt
, where they bring in profits ranging from LSd 7 000 to LSd 12 000, i.e. approximately US$600 to US$1000, per head. Some male animals though are kept for riding and to carry their burden for their migrations. A separate strain, the Anafi, is bred for the racing camel market in the Persian Gulf area, where prices reach up to LSd 1 million.
The Rashaida migrate in a north-south direction. The amplitude of their annual migrations varies from year to year depending on the amount of rainfall, but in a normal year the range is between 200 and 300 km. During the rainy season in June and July, they move northward to about 16°N (200 mm isohyet) to exploit the seasonally abundant forage. In years with abundant rainfall they may roam as far north as 18°N when milk production at this time is at its highest.
Since the arrival of mechanized farming, the durra stalks which appear to be a nutritionally adequate type of fodder, have ensured a certain degree of security for the pastoral system. In Sudan, camels are the only domestic animals that can exploit this precarious ecological niche due to their ability to work in extreme temperatures, which can be artificially created by mechanized agriculture. Drinking spots are scarce in the area, and sheep and goats would be unable to move far enough from the few available water sources to utilize the vast expanses of harvested fields. Camels require watering approximately every six days, for which they are usually driven to the Atbara River. Camels are also able to migrate far enough north during the rainy season to utilize the only remaining non-cultivated areas.
Feeding the camels on sorghum
stalks can have positive fertilizing effects on the soil while their soft-padded feet do not churn up the soil or contribute to erosion, as would the sharp hooves of small ruminants.
s are bred for the first time at the age of four to five years, producing their first calves one year later. In dry years, when forage is scarce, maturity is delayed and first conception occurs at a later age. Under such circumstances the sexual activity of male animals is also depressed. This indicates that, although camel herds sustain fewer deaths during severe droughts than other types of livestock, they do suffer deferred effects, such as markedly lower calving rates in the following year. It also suggests that the low reproductive rates, which are frequently regarded as the great economic drawback of camels, are at least in part a sound and self-regulatory physiological adaptation that attunes their population sizes to fluctuating forage availability, preventing the overgrazing
of resources.
The two seasons when breeding peaks are: the main one during and immediately after the rainy season, lasting from July to September; and another occurring in December and January. Generally, one breeding male is kept for 40 to 50 females but in larger herds there is more than one breeding male.
It is of interest that the Rashaida leave it to their stud males to establish their dominance. After a certain time, one of them becomes exhausted and is willingly superseded by his rival.
It is generally held that the normal calving intervals for camels is two years or more and that camels conceive no earlier than one year after giving birth. While this appears to be the prevailing pattern, the Rashaida point out that a minority of females actually become pregnant within two months of parturition, resulting in calving intervals as short as 14 to 15 months and some females reproducing almost every year. These observations indicate pronounced genetically determined fertility differentials between individuals and also indicate that the breeding seasons, in this geographical zone at least, are much less circumscribed than previously assumed.
On the other hand, it was found that herds also contained a number of older females that had never produced a living calf, or had given birth only once. Such animals are kept on, not out of a desire for large herds or for reasons of prestige, but because they often continue to produce milk, even without becoming pregnant again.
It was evident that the- potential of the Rashaida herds for milk production is not systematically exploited and that, during most of the year, supply and demand do not concur. While in the rainy season there is more milk available than can be utilized, during the dry season milk yields do not satisfy household needs.
To some extent the Rashaida alleviate these discrepancies by processing milk that is not needed by the calf or for immediate human consumption into storable products. Unprocessed camel milk remains fit for consumption for four to five days, although its acidity increases significantly during this period. It can be processed into two different types of product with practically unlimited "shelf-life" by very simple procedures. Milk may be turned into butter
(zibde) by shaking it in a goatskin or other container for about one hour. Through heating, zibde turns into zamin (clarified butter or ghee) which is then used as cooking fat or eaten with sorghum porridge
or bread
. The other milk product described by the Rashaida is madhur, made by boiling sour milk until it coagulates. The clotted substance is then drained through a piece of gauze
, formed into balls and sun-dried. In this form milk stores for almost indefinite periods and can be reconstituted during droughts or the dry season by pulverizing and adding water. Since it is often held that camel milk does not lend itself to butter or cheese production, these practices of the Rashaida are noteworthy. However, because the women and smallstock are usually separated from the camel herds during the rainy season when milk yields are abundant, only a small proportion of the milk is processed.
(ghuffar), mange
(jerab), pneumonia
(haboob), camel pox (ghedderi), contagious skin necrosis (na'aita) and ringworm (ghoob) and Western medication is rarely available to treat them.
when it becomes difficult for Sudanese herders to prevent their animals from damaging the crop. This is especially so in dry years when natural forage is quickly depleted, and it requires considerable labor to keep the camels away from the fields. The situation is exacerbated by the frequently random spread of cultivation, which often results in grazing areas being encircled by cultivated fields. Punishments levied against crop damage are harsh.
Large-scale mechanized monocropping
is an agricultural production technique which initially yields high returns but, subsequently, productivity declines quickly and dramatically. Monetary returns of camel husbandry are low but, on the other hand, it is an ecologically sound, long-term, sustainable strategy for arid
land exploitation. Scientists have presented evidence that camel grazing is beneficial for range vegetation (Gauthier-Pilters, 1984) and it appears likely that camel husbandry might discard some of the ecologically destructive effects of monocropping in sensitive environments throughout Sudan
.
Camel
A camel is an even-toed ungulate within the genus Camelus, bearing distinctive fatty deposits known as humps on its back. There are two species of camels: the dromedary or Arabian camel has a single hump, and the bactrian has two humps. Dromedaries are native to the dry desert areas of West Asia,...
s have regained recognition for their food-producing potential in arid
Arid
A region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or even preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life...
and semi-arid
Semi-arid
A semi-arid climate or steppe climate describes climatic regions that receive precipitation below potential evapotranspiration, but not extremely...
areas of Sudan
Sudan
Sudan , officially the Republic of the Sudan , is a country in North Africa, sometimes considered part of the Middle East politically. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the...
. After having been dismissed as uneconomical by the Sudanese government, their vital role in supporting human populations in some of the poorest and frequently drought-stricken areas of the world has now been widely acknowledged (Hjort af Ornäs, 1988). The devastating African drought in 1984-1985 demonstrated that camel ownership can give pastoralists a competitive edge and an excellent chance for survival. Whereas entire herds of cattle, sheep and goats succumbed to the arid conditions, camel populations survived relatively unscathed. Consequently, some pastoral groups with deeply ingrained traditions of cattle herding, such as the Samburu
Samburu
The Samburu are a Nilotic people of north-central Kenya that are related to but distinct from the Maasai. The Samburu are semi-nomadic pastoralists who herd mainly cattle but also keep sheep, goats and camels. The name they use for themselves is Lokop or Loikop, a term which may have a variety of...
in northern Kenya
Kenya
Kenya , officially known as the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator, with the Indian Ocean to its south-east...
, started to acquire camels (Sperling, 1987), a fact which has come to the attention of development agencies and international organizations.
In parts of the rain-fed agricultural belt of the Sudan, current developments suggest that camels are indeed able to be integrated with crop cultivation
Tillage
Tillage is the agricultural preparation of the soil by mechanical agitation of various types, such as digging, stirring, and overturning. Examples of human-powered tilling methods using hand tools include shovelling, picking, mattock work, hoeing, and raking...
systems. They can exploit efficiently the by-products of large-scale mechanized durra (sorghum) cultivation and may even mitigate some of the ecological side-effects for which these monocropping schemes are known.
Mechanized farming in Sudan
Although Sudan has a large population of pastoralPastoral
The adjective pastoral refers to the lifestyle of pastoralists, such as shepherds herding livestock around open areas of land according to seasons and the changing availability of water and pasturage. It also refers to a genre in literature, art or music that depicts such shepherd life in an...
nomad
Nomad
Nomadic people , commonly known as itinerants in modern-day contexts, are communities of people who move from one place to another, rather than settling permanently in one location. There are an estimated 30-40 million nomads in the world. Many cultures have traditionally been nomadic, but...
s, its fertile
Fertile
The term fertile describes a condition whereby organisms are able to produce physically healthy offspring.Fertile may also refer to:...
clay soils in the central plains have caused it to be regarded as an area of economic potential for the Arab world. With capital from international donors, in the late 1960s a programme was instituted for the large-scale, mechanized cultivation of durra (sorghum
Sorghum
Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, one of which is raised for grain and many of which are used as fodder plants either cultivated or as part of pasture. The plants are cultivated in warmer climates worldwide. Species are native to tropical and subtropical regions of all continents...
). Under this scheme, the Mechanized Farming Corporation leased large plots of land, mostly to urban entrepreneurs and landlords, and provided loans for the purchase of machinery.
However during the course of cultivation, the land was stripped of its natural vegetation
Vegetation
Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region; it refers to the ground cover provided by plants. It is a general term, without specific reference to particular taxa, life forms, structure, spatial extent, or any other specific botanical or geographic characteristics. It is broader...
where shrubs were usually processed into charcoal
Charcoal
Charcoal is the dark grey residue consisting of carbon, and any remaining ash, obtained by removing water and other volatile constituents from animal and vegetation substances. Charcoal is usually produced by slow pyrolysis, the heating of wood or other substances in the absence of oxygen...
, and the soil disc-ploughed and seeded. Although yields were initially high, exposure of the topsoil to deflation and erosion, combined with nutrient depletion in the absence of crop rotation schemes, led to drastic declines within just a few years and rapid deforestation
Deforestation
Deforestation is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where the land is thereafter converted to a nonforest use. Examples of deforestation include conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use....
. The cultivators then were forced to relocate to virgin plots and the process was repeated. The abandoned land- meanwhile became useless not only for cultivation, but also as grazing ground because of the destruction of the native vegetation. By the end of the 1970s, eight million feddan
Feddan
A feddan is a unit of area. It is used in Egypt, Sudan, and Syria. The feddan is not an SI unit and in Arabic, the word means 'a yoke of oxen': implying the area of ground that could be tilled by them in a certain time. In Egypt the feddan is the only non-metric unit which remained in use...
s (34,000 km2) had already come under cultivation (Shepherd, 1983). The attendant processes of desertification have been well documented and shown to have led to a significant expansion of the desert to the south (Ibrahim, 1978)..
Camel breeds of the Sudan
Sudan has the second largest camel population in the world, estimated at nearly 3,000,000 (Salih, 1988), and the country is home to some of the most well-known camel nomads, the Kababish, Shukria, Hadendowa and others. Tribal groups in Sudan breed distinctive types of camels (Mason and Maule, 1960). Well-known among these are the AnafiAnafi
Anafi is a Greek island community in the Cyclades. In 2001, it had a population of 273 inhabitants. Its land area is 40.370 km². It lies east of the island of Thíra...
and Bishareen, prized for their racing and riding capacities, the Rashaidi, a sturdy transport camel with superior drought resistance, and the large whitish Lahaween, which gives high meat yields.
The Arab breed of camel is well suited for meat
Meat
Meat is animal flesh that is used as food. Most often, this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat and other tissues, but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs and offal...
production and transportation. Camel milk
Camel milk
Camel's milk has supported Bedouin, nomad and pastoral cultures since the domestication of camels millennia ago. Herders may for periods survive solely on the milk when taking the camels on long distances to graze in desert and arid environments....
is important at the subsistence level but is rarely marketed. The export of camels for slaughter -mostly to Egypt, but also to the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya and other countries, is an important source of foreign currency, which is not overlooked in a country with few road
Road
A road is a thoroughfare, route, or way on land between two places, which typically has been paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by some conveyance, including a horse, cart, or motor vehicle. Roads consist of one, or sometimes two, roadways each with one or more lanes and also any...
s and a chronic fuel shortage.
Rashaida farming
Most of the land assigned for sorghum cultivation by the Mechanized Farming Corporation had previously been used by pastoralists to graze their animals. One of a number of pastoral groups whose grazing grounds were encroached upon is the Rashaida in the KassalaKassala
Kassala is the capital of the state of Kassala in eastern Sudan. Its 2008 population was recorded to be 419,030. It is a market town and is famous for its fruit gardens. It was formerly a railroad hub, however, as of 2006 there was no operational railway station in Kassala and much of the track...
area of eastern Sudan. This tribe emigrated from Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia , commonly known in British English as Saudi Arabia and in Arabic as as-Sa‘ūdiyyah , is the largest state in Western Asia by land area, constituting the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and the second-largest in the Arab World...
to the Sudan in the last century and, because of their relatively recent arrival, their territorial rights have been regarded as tenuous at best. However, as specialized camel breeders, they have been able to adapt themselves well to the expansion of sorghum cultivation into their grazing grounds. By using sorghum byproducts to feed their camels, they have been able to significantly increase food output per unit area.
The Rashaida tribe breeds two distinct types of camel. A small number of Anafi breeding stock is kept to cater for the lucrative racing camel market in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and the Persian Gulf
Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf, in Southwest Asia, is an extension of the Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers...
states, but the majority of the tribe's camels belong to the Rashaida breed. This is a relatively small-sized but stocky breed, characterized by its reddish colour during adulthood, although young animals are dark grey. It is known for its high milk yields and is regarded as especially hardy and drought-resistant. To improve body weight and meat productivity, the Rashaida tribe has bought breeding stock from the neighbouring Lahaween tribe, whose larger camels are stronger-bone
Bone
Bones are rigid organs that constitute part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They support, and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. Bone tissue is a type of dense connective tissue...
d, cross breeding which is believed to display hybrid vigor.
The Rashaida pastoral system
Camels are the backbone of the Rashaida pastoralists' economy and are also central to their culture. Camel milkCamel milk
Camel's milk has supported Bedouin, nomad and pastoral cultures since the domestication of camels millennia ago. Herders may for periods survive solely on the milk when taking the camels on long distances to graze in desert and arid environments....
is a key ingredient in their diet and, since sorghum is their only other staple, it represents their almost exclusive source of protein and vitamins. Cash is received at town markets for male camels sold for slaughter at the age of six to seven years. They are collected at regular intervals into large herds and driven to the meat markets in Egypt
Egypt
Egypt , officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, Arabic: , is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula forming a land bridge in Southwest Asia. Egypt is thus a transcontinental country, and a major power in Africa, the Mediterranean Basin, the Middle East and the Muslim world...
, where they bring in profits ranging from LSd 7 000 to LSd 12 000, i.e. approximately US$600 to US$1000, per head. Some male animals though are kept for riding and to carry their burden for their migrations. A separate strain, the Anafi, is bred for the racing camel market in the Persian Gulf area, where prices reach up to LSd 1 million.
The Rashaida migrate in a north-south direction. The amplitude of their annual migrations varies from year to year depending on the amount of rainfall, but in a normal year the range is between 200 and 300 km. During the rainy season in June and July, they move northward to about 16°N (200 mm isohyet) to exploit the seasonally abundant forage. In years with abundant rainfall they may roam as far north as 18°N when milk production at this time is at its highest.
Since the arrival of mechanized farming, the durra stalks which appear to be a nutritionally adequate type of fodder, have ensured a certain degree of security for the pastoral system. In Sudan, camels are the only domestic animals that can exploit this precarious ecological niche due to their ability to work in extreme temperatures, which can be artificially created by mechanized agriculture. Drinking spots are scarce in the area, and sheep and goats would be unable to move far enough from the few available water sources to utilize the vast expanses of harvested fields. Camels require watering approximately every six days, for which they are usually driven to the Atbara River. Camels are also able to migrate far enough north during the rainy season to utilize the only remaining non-cultivated areas.
Feeding the camels on sorghum
Sorghum
Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, one of which is raised for grain and many of which are used as fodder plants either cultivated or as part of pasture. The plants are cultivated in warmer climates worldwide. Species are native to tropical and subtropical regions of all continents...
stalks can have positive fertilizing effects on the soil while their soft-padded feet do not churn up the soil or contribute to erosion, as would the sharp hooves of small ruminants.
Breeding and productivity
Many Rashaida camel farmers own approximately 50 to 70 animals per household, of which 60 percent are breeding-age females. FemaleFemale
Female is the sex of an organism, or a part of an organism, which produces non-mobile ova .- Defining characteristics :The ova are defined as the larger gametes in a heterogamous reproduction system, while the smaller, usually motile gamete, the spermatozoon, is produced by the male...
s are bred for the first time at the age of four to five years, producing their first calves one year later. In dry years, when forage is scarce, maturity is delayed and first conception occurs at a later age. Under such circumstances the sexual activity of male animals is also depressed. This indicates that, although camel herds sustain fewer deaths during severe droughts than other types of livestock, they do suffer deferred effects, such as markedly lower calving rates in the following year. It also suggests that the low reproductive rates, which are frequently regarded as the great economic drawback of camels, are at least in part a sound and self-regulatory physiological adaptation that attunes their population sizes to fluctuating forage availability, preventing the overgrazing
Overgrazing
Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, or by overpopulations of native or non-native wild animals.Overgrazing reduces the...
of resources.
The two seasons when breeding peaks are: the main one during and immediately after the rainy season, lasting from July to September; and another occurring in December and January. Generally, one breeding male is kept for 40 to 50 females but in larger herds there is more than one breeding male.
It is of interest that the Rashaida leave it to their stud males to establish their dominance. After a certain time, one of them becomes exhausted and is willingly superseded by his rival.
It is generally held that the normal calving intervals for camels is two years or more and that camels conceive no earlier than one year after giving birth. While this appears to be the prevailing pattern, the Rashaida point out that a minority of females actually become pregnant within two months of parturition, resulting in calving intervals as short as 14 to 15 months and some females reproducing almost every year. These observations indicate pronounced genetically determined fertility differentials between individuals and also indicate that the breeding seasons, in this geographical zone at least, are much less circumscribed than previously assumed.
On the other hand, it was found that herds also contained a number of older females that had never produced a living calf, or had given birth only once. Such animals are kept on, not out of a desire for large herds or for reasons of prestige, but because they often continue to produce milk, even without becoming pregnant again.
Camel milk production
Milk yields have been reported to be anywhere between 750 and 2 300 litres per year, with lactation usually continuing at the same level throughout the year.It was evident that the- potential of the Rashaida herds for milk production is not systematically exploited and that, during most of the year, supply and demand do not concur. While in the rainy season there is more milk available than can be utilized, during the dry season milk yields do not satisfy household needs.
To some extent the Rashaida alleviate these discrepancies by processing milk that is not needed by the calf or for immediate human consumption into storable products. Unprocessed camel milk remains fit for consumption for four to five days, although its acidity increases significantly during this period. It can be processed into two different types of product with practically unlimited "shelf-life" by very simple procedures. Milk may be turned into butter
Butter
Butter is a dairy product made by churning fresh or fermented cream or milk. It is generally used as a spread and a condiment, as well as in cooking applications, such as baking, sauce making, and pan frying...
(zibde) by shaking it in a goatskin or other container for about one hour. Through heating, zibde turns into zamin (clarified butter or ghee) which is then used as cooking fat or eaten with sorghum porridge
Porridge
Porridge is a dish made by boiling oats or other cereal meals in water, milk, or both. It is usually served hot in a bowl or dish...
or bread
Bread
Bread is a staple food prepared by cooking a dough of flour and water and often additional ingredients. Doughs are usually baked, but in some cuisines breads are steamed , fried , or baked on an unoiled frying pan . It may be leavened or unleavened...
. The other milk product described by the Rashaida is madhur, made by boiling sour milk until it coagulates. The clotted substance is then drained through a piece of gauze
Gauze
Gauze is a thin, translucent fabric with a loose open weave.-Uses and types:Gauze was originally made of silk and was used for clothing. It is now used for many different things, including gauze sponges for medical purposes. When used as a medical dressing, gauze is generally made of cotton...
, formed into balls and sun-dried. In this form milk stores for almost indefinite periods and can be reconstituted during droughts or the dry season by pulverizing and adding water. Since it is often held that camel milk does not lend itself to butter or cheese production, these practices of the Rashaida are noteworthy. However, because the women and smallstock are usually separated from the camel herds during the rainy season when milk yields are abundant, only a small proportion of the milk is processed.
Inhibiting diseases
Mastitis frequently interferes with milk production. Its incidence appears to be unusually high among Rashaida camels. Most often it occurs in animals whose offspring have died, so it may be attributable to insufficient milking. Köhler-Rollefson, Musa and Fadl Achmed, 1991). Among the most common diseases affecting livestock are trypanosomiasisTrypanosomiasis
Trypanosomiasis or trypanosomosis is the name of several diseases in vertebrates caused by parasitic protozoan trypanosomes of the genus Trypanosoma. Approximately 500,000 men, women and children in 36 countries of sub-Saharan Africa suffer from human African trypanosomiasis which is caused by...
(ghuffar), mange
Mange
Mange is the common name for a class of persistent contagious skin diseases caused by parasitic mites. Since mites also infect plants, birds, and reptiles, the term "mange," suggesting poor condition of the hairy coat due to the infection, is sometimes reserved only for pathological...
(jerab), pneumonia
Pneumonia
Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung—especially affecting the microscopic air sacs —associated with fever, chest symptoms, and a lack of air space on a chest X-ray. Pneumonia is typically caused by an infection but there are a number of other causes...
(haboob), camel pox (ghedderi), contagious skin necrosis (na'aita) and ringworm (ghoob) and Western medication is rarely available to treat them.
Economic and ecological effects of camel farming
Most Rashaida camels in Sudan though are generally considered to be in good health and excellent condition, doubtless because of the ample availability of feed in the form of durra byproducts. Access to harvested durra fields, however, does not come cheaply. In 1989, to keep 100 camels on sorghum stalks from January to July, owners paid about LSd 50 000 (approximately US$4 000 at that time) and a household normally needs to sell three or four camels to pay for this privilege. Additional problems regularly occur just before the sorghum harvestHarvest
Harvest is the process of gathering mature crops from the fields. Reaping is the cutting of grain or pulse for harvest, typically using a scythe, sickle, or reaper...
when it becomes difficult for Sudanese herders to prevent their animals from damaging the crop. This is especially so in dry years when natural forage is quickly depleted, and it requires considerable labor to keep the camels away from the fields. The situation is exacerbated by the frequently random spread of cultivation, which often results in grazing areas being encircled by cultivated fields. Punishments levied against crop damage are harsh.
Large-scale mechanized monocropping
Monoculture
Monoculture is the agricultural practice of producing or growing one single crop over a wide area. It is also known as a way of farming practice of growing large stands of a single species. It is widely used in modern industrial agriculture and its implementation has allowed for large harvests from...
is an agricultural production technique which initially yields high returns but, subsequently, productivity declines quickly and dramatically. Monetary returns of camel husbandry are low but, on the other hand, it is an ecologically sound, long-term, sustainable strategy for arid
Arid
A region is said to be arid when it is characterized by a severe lack of available water, to the extent of hindering or even preventing the growth and development of plant and animal life...
land exploitation. Scientists have presented evidence that camel grazing is beneficial for range vegetation (Gauthier-Pilters, 1984) and it appears likely that camel husbandry might discard some of the ecologically destructive effects of monocropping in sensitive environments throughout Sudan
Sudan
Sudan , officially the Republic of the Sudan , is a country in North Africa, sometimes considered part of the Middle East politically. It is bordered by Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the northeast, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the east, South Sudan to the south, the Central African Republic to the...
.